¹ This article will use the term ‘interest group’ rather than ‘pressure group.’ For the definitional advantages of the former, see Wooten, Graham, Interest Groups (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 1970), p. 76. Recent studies of interest groups in Latin America includeGoogle ScholarAstiz, Carlos A., Pressure Groups and Power Elites in Peruvian Politics (Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1969);Google ScholarShafer, Robert Jones, Mexican Business Organizations: History and Analysis (Syracuse, N.Y., Syracuse University Press, 1973);Google Scholar and Schmitter, Philippe C., Interest Conflict and Political Change in Brazil (Stanford, Cal., Stanford University Press,1971).Google Scholar

² On the concept of developmental maturity and the importance of the nineteenth century as a ‘take-off’ period, see Rostow, W. W., The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1971), pp. 36–58.Google Scholar

³ For discussion of this problem see Zisk, Betty H., ‘Interest Groups and the Political Process’, in American Political Interest Groups: Readings in Theory and Research, ed. Zisk, Betty H. (Belmont, Cal., Wadsworth, 1969), p. 158,Google Scholar and Finer, S. E., ‘Discussion: The Over-All Effects of Pressure Groups on Political Consensus and Decision Making’, in Interest Groups on Four Continents, ed. Ehrmann, Henry W. (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1958), p. 295.Google Scholar

⁴ Inter-American Development Bank, Economic and Social Progress in Latin America: Annual Report 1973 (Washington, D.C., Inter-Anerican Development Bank, 1974), p. 19.Google Scholar

⁵ Baer, Werner and Villela, Annibal V., ‘Industrial Growth and Industrialization: Revisions in the Stages of Brazil's Economic Development’, The Journal of Developing Areas, 7 (01 1973), 228.Google Scholar

⁶ Poppino, Rollie E., Brazil: The Land and People (2nd ed., New York, Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 264;Google ScholarWagley, Charles, An Introduction to Brazil (rev. ed., New York and London, Columbia University Press, 1971), pp. 25 & 55.Google Scholar

⁷ Graham, Richard, Britain and the Onset of Modernization in Brazil, 1850–1914 (Cambridge University Press, 1968), pp. 14–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁸ Schmitter, op. cit., pp. 142–3. Other business interest groups were usually satellite organizations of the commercial associations, or groups with similar aims and even personnel. For an example of the latter see Actas da Assembléa Geral do Centro Commercial, 1897–1905, pp. 1–55, Arquivo da Associação Comercial do Rio de Janeiro, hereafter cited as AACRI.Google Scholar

⁹ There have been few full-length scholarly studies of commercial associations. For the Bahian group see Ridings, Eugene W., The Bahian Commercial Association, 1840–1889: A Pressure Group in an Underdeveloped Area’ (Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Florida, 1970). Businessmen members of commercial associations have also written on their own organizations, although usually dealing little with their role as interest groups.Google Scholar For Rio de Janeiro see Barros, Eudes, A Associação Commercial no império e na república, foreword by Raul de Gócs (Rio de Janeiro, Associação Comercial do Rio de Janeiro, 1959).Google Scholar For Pernambuco see Pinto, Estevão, A Associação Comercial de Pernambuco (Recife, Jornal do Comércio, 1940).Google Scholar For Bahia see Valverde, M. S. L., Subsidio para a história da Associação Commercial da Bahia (Salvador, Duas Améicas, 1917)Google Scholar and Mattos, Waldemar, Pal´cio da Associação Comercial da Bahia (antiga Praça do Comércio) (Salvador, Beneditina, 1950).Google Scholar Much material on the Maranho organization is included in de Viveiros, Jerônimo, História do Con;mércio do Maranhão, 1612–1895, 2 vols. (São Luís, Associação Commercial do Maranhão, 1954).Google Scholar

¹⁰ The often-repeated claim of the Bahian Commercial Association to have been founded in s8i i is erroneous. The building which later became association headquarters was completed that year and a committee of administrators for it set up, but the interest group itself was not created until 1840. On the foundation of the Bahian Commercial Association see Bahian Commercial Association to President of Province, Salvador, 24 Nov. 1840, Registro dos OffIcios da Associação Commercial da Bahia, 1840–50, Arquivo da Associaçãco Commercial da Bahia (hereafter cited as AACB), p. 1. The Agricultural Commercial Association of Recife actually preceded that city's commercial association, being founded in 1836. It represented the sugar industry, rather than business as a whole.Google ScholarEisenberg, Peter L., The Sugar Industry of Pernambuco, 1850–1889 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, University of California Press, 1974), p. 141.Google Scholar

¹¹ See, for example, Associaçāo Commercial de Santo,, Relatório da Associação Commercial de Santos apresentado em 29 de Janeiro de 1876 (Rio de Janeiro, Perseverança, 1876), pp. 5–8.Google Scholar

¹² Luz, Nícia Vilela, A Luta pela industrializaçao do Brasil (São Paulo, Difusāo Européia do Livro, 1961), pp. 46–54.Google Scholar

¹³ Only the Imperial Institute of Agriculture of Rio de Janeiro (Fluminensce) was lasting and active. On the unenergetic Imperial Bahian Institute of Agriculture, see Fragoso, Arlindo, Ensino Agricola: Escola Agrícola de Bahia, série de artigos publicados no “Jornal de Noticias,” sobre a urgencia e bases de reforma dêsse estabelecimento (Salvador, Dois Mundos, 1893). The Imperial Institute of Agriculture of Pernambuco was similarly inert, although a second farm organization, founded in 1872, the Pernambuco Agriculture Auxiliary Society, was more lasting and effective.Google ScholarEisenberg, op. cit., pp. 141–2. The Agricultural, Commércial and Indústrial Society of the Provínce of Bahia, often mentioned as Brazil's first agricultural interest organization, represented business as well as agriculture. It apparently died out within a few years of its foundation in 1832. See Sociedade de Agricultura, Commércio, e Indútria da Província da Bahia, Acta da installaçā (1832) Arquivo do Instituto Geográe Histórico da Bahia, pp. 3–1.Google Scholar

¹⁴ See Ridings, Eugene W., Elite Conflict and Cooperation in the Brazilian Empire: The Case of Bahia's Businessmen and Planters,’ Luso-Brazilian Review, 12, No. 1 (Summer, 1975), 80–99.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Schmitter, op. cit., p. 742.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Beltro, Heitor, Um Capítulo da histôria da praça do Rio de Janciro: considcraçōes de ordem histórica e jurídica, 1820–1929 (Rio de Janeiro, Imprensa Nacional, 1929), p. 3.Google Scholar

¹⁷ See, for example, Commercial Beneficial Association of Pernambuco to President, Commer. cial Tribunal, Recife, 22 Dec. 1870, Relatório da Associação Commercial Beneficente de Pernambuco do 1 de Agôsto de 1871 (Recife, Jornal do Recife, 1871), pp. 35–6; Commercial Association of Rio de Janeiro to Minister of Foreign Affairs, de Janeiro, Rio, 22 Feb. 1888, Relatório da Associafão Commercial do Rio de Janciro do Anno de 1890 (Rio de Janeiro, Montenegro, 1891), pp. 24–5; Minutes, meeting of 2 Sept. 1884, Livro de Actas da Associação Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, 1881–90, AACRJ, p. 115 Commercial Association of Rio de Janeiro to Directors of All Rio de Janeiro Banks, Rio, i Apr. 1891, Livro dos Offícios da Associaçāo Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, 1887–92, AACRJ, p. 75.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Associaçāo Commercial do de Janeiro, Rio, Relatório de 1878, pp. 34–5; Minutes, meetings of 12 Feb. 1882, and Apr. 1888, Livro de Actas, 1881–1890, AACRJ, pp. 35 & 188.Google Scholar

¹⁹ For example, minutes, meeting of 10 Oct 1883, Livro de Actas, 1881– 1890, AACRJ, p. 91;Google ScholarRidings, Eugene W., ‘The Merchant Elite and the Development of Brazil: The Case of Bahia During the Empire’, Journal of Inter-American Studies and World Affairs, 15 (08. 1973), 338.Google Scholar

²⁰ The Rio organization even set up its own news service. Associação Commercial do de Janeiro, Rio, Relatório de 1872, pp. 4–5.Google Scholar

²¹ Associação Commercial do de Janeiro, Rio, Eslatutos da Associação Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, aprovados pela Assembléa Geral Extraordinária de 12 de Junho de 1883 (Rio de Janeiro, Montenegro, 1884), pp. 43–4.Google Scholar

²² For the extensive social contacts between businessmen and politicians, see de Araújo Pinho, José Wanderley, Salōes e damas do segundo reinado (Sāo Paulo, Martins, 1959), passim.Google Scholar

²³ Neither in commercial association archives, publications, nor official histories do complete lists of honorary members usually appear, save in Associaçāo Commercial Beneficente de Pernambuco, Relatório de 1890, pp. 35–6. The number of prime ministers honored by associations is probably much larger.Google Scholar

²⁴ Anonymous, ‘Traços biográficos do Conde de Mesquita,’ Lata 352, Documento 21, Coleçáo Instituto Histórico, Arquivo do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro (hereafter cited as IHGB), p. 28.Google Scholar

²⁵ Rclatório de 1874, p. 3.Google Scholar

²⁶ Associaçáo Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, Relatório de 1881, p. 5.Google Scholar

²⁷ Eisenberg, op. cit., pp. 42–8; Viveiros, op. cit., II, 460–1;Google ScholarStein, Stanley J., Vassouras: A Brazilian Coflee County, 1850–90 (New York, Atheneum, 1970), pp. 23–4, 48–50.Google Scholar

²⁸ Pinto, op. cit., p. 16; Minutes, meeting of 20 Jan. 1846, Livro I de Actas, AACB, pp. 197–8. Associaçáo Commercial Beneficente de Pernambuco, Dcscripção dos festejos promovidos pela Associaçāo Commercial Beneficente para receber o corn boio de café vindo da Villa do Bonito (Recife, Jornal do Recife, 1876), p. 23; Bahian Commercial Association to President of Province, Salvador, 34 May 1846, Registro dos Offícios, 1840–1850, AACB, not numbered.Google Scholar

²⁹ Associação Commercial Beneficente de Pernambuco, Descripção dos festejos, passim.Google Scholar

³⁰ Associação Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, Relatório de 1872, p. 8; Bahian Commercial Association to Chief of Customs, Salvador, 3 Mar. 1871, Relatório de 13 de Novembro de 1871, p. 24.Google Scholar

³¹ Leff, Nathaniel H., ‘Economic Retardation in Nineteenth-Century Brazil’, Economic History Review, 25 (08. 1972), 503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³² On the campaign, see Associação Commercial Beneficente de Pernambuco, Relatório de 1871, p. 12; Associaçāo Commercial de Rio de Janeiro, Relatório de 1872, p. 7.Google Scholar

³³ Beltrāo, Heitor, ‘O Civismo da Praça num Século de Labor’ in Associaçāo Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, Aspectos colligidos a propósito do centendrio de Associaçāo Commercial (Rio de Janeiro, Associaçāo Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, 1935), p. 75;Google ScholarMinutes, meeting of 2 Oct. 1844, Livro I de Actas, AACB, p. 151;Google ScholarPinto, op. cit., p. 230.Google Scholar

³⁴ Eisenberg, op. cit., p. 77;Google ScholarJoslin, David, A Century of Banking in Latin America (London, Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 25.Google Scholar

³⁵ For example, Bahian Commercial Association to Francisco Mayrink, P., Salvador, 11 Apr. 1881, Relatório de 1881, pp. 15–18; Honório Augusto Ribeiro to Visconde de Ouro Prêto, Rio de Janeiro, 11 Sept. 5889, Lata 427, Documento 13, Coleção Ouro Prêto, Arquivo de IHGB, pp. 1–2.Google Scholar

³⁶ Associação Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, Rclatório de 1880, p. 6;Google ScholarRidings, ‘Elite Conflict and Cooperation’, pp. 89–90.Google Scholar

³⁷ Conrad, Robert, The Destruction of Brazilian Slavery, 1850–1888 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, University of California Press, 1972), pp. 165–6.Google Scholar

³⁸ Minutes, meeting of 26 Feb. 1883, Livro de Actas, 1881–1890, AACRJ, p. 69; Bahian Commercial Association and Imperial Bahian Institute of Agriculture to Brazilian Parliament, Salvador, 30 May 1884, Relatório de 1884, pp. 22–9.Google Scholar

³⁹ Associação Commercial Beneficente de Pernambuco, Relatório de 1867, p. 6; Commercial Association of Rio de Janeiro to President of Council of Ministers, Rio, 19 Aug. 1887, Livro dos Offícios, 1887–1892, AACRJ, p. 16.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Bahian Commercial Association to President of Province, Salvador, 17 Mar. 1871, Presidência da Província/Govêrno ao Associaçáo Commercial, 1846–89, Arquivo do Estado da Bahia.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Conrad, op. cit., 213–15; Toplin, Robert Brent, The Abolition of Slavery in Brazil (New York, Atheneum, 1975), p. 102.Google Scholar

⁴² Associação Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, Elemento servil: primeira representafçāo da cornmissāo especial nomeada em assembléa geral extraordinária de 2 da Maio 1884 (Rio de Janeiro, Villeneuve & Cia., 1884), pp. 5 & 8.Google Scholar

⁴³ The Dantas bill was substituted by another emancipation project created by José Antônio Saraiva. Much weaker and with numerous loopholes, the latter measure was generally sup. ported by pro-slavery elements, including the Rio de Janeiro Commercial Association. Conrad, op. cit., 224–5; Toplin, op. cit., 105–9; José Antônio Saraiva to Commercial Association of Rio de Janeiro, Rio, 11 July 1885, Relatoório de 1884–1885, pp. 29–30.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Minutes, meeting of 21 May 1888, Livro de Actas, 1881–1890, AACRJ, p. 191; Diário da Bahia, May 17–22, 1888, passim.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Representaçáo dirigida pela commissão de lavoura e commércio a sua alteza imperial regente, Bahia, 5 July 1888, Presidência da Província/Govêrno ao Associação Commercial, 1846–1889, Arquivo do Estado da Bahia; Viveiros, 11, 469.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Associação Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, Relatório de 1882–1883, pp. 5–6; Commercial Association of Rio de Janeiro to Chamber of Deputies, Rio, 2 July 1885, Relaiório de 1884–1885, pp. 30–2; Viveiros, II, 468.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Ridings, ‘Elite Conflict and Cooperation’, p. 92; Eisenberg, op. cit., pp. 198–214.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ For example, Hermano Joppert, Treasurer of the Rio de Janeiro association, was also a director of four sugarrefining and agricultural development companies. Almanak administrativo, mercantil, e industrial do lmpério do Brazil para 1889 (Rio de Janeiro, Laemmert & Cia., 1889), pp. 1355, 1357, 1389, 1390.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Leff, Nathaniel H., ‘Tropical Trade and Development in the Nineteenth Century: The Brazilian Experience’ Journal of Political Economy, 81 (May/June, 1973), 680–681;CrossRefGoogle ScholarBaer and Villela, op. cit., pp. 218–19;Google ScholarLeff, Nathaniel H., ‘Long-Term Brazilian Economic Development’, The Journal of Economic History, 29 (Sept., 1969), 479–481.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁰ Furtado, Celso, The Economic Growth of Brazil: A Survey From Colonial to Modern Times, trans. de Aguiar, Ricardo W. and Drysdale, Eric Charles (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1965), p. 156;Google ScholarLeff, ‘Long-Term Brazilian Economic Development’ pp. 489–490.Google Scholar

⁵¹ For members of the planter elite who encouraged modernization see Pang, Eul-Soo, ‘The Costa Pinto Clan of Santo Amaro and Engenho Central Born Jardim in Bahia‘ (Unpublished manuscript, Vanderbilt University, 1974).Google Scholar On continuing indifference see Leeds, Anthony, ‘Economic Cycles in Brazil: The Persistence of a Total Culture Pattern; Cacao and Other Cases‘ (Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1957),Google Scholar and Hutchinson, H. W., ‘Value Orientations and Northeast Brazilian Agro-Industrial Modernization’ Inter-American Economic Affairs, 21 (Spring, 1968), 73–88.Google Scholar

⁵² Branner, John Casper, ‘The Cotton Industry in Brazil’ Popular Science Monthly, 60 (1891–1892), 669.Google Scholar

⁵³ Leff, ‘Economic Retardation in Brazil’ p. 506.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Beltrão, O Civismo da Praça num século de labor’, p. 75. For a biography of Mauá in English see Marchant, Anyda, Viscount Mauá and the Empire of Brazil: A Biography of Ireneu Evangelista de Sousa (1813–1889) (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1965).Google Scholar

⁵⁵ See, for example, Associaçāo Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, Relatório de 1890, p. 25; Commercial Association of Santos to Superintendent, Companhia da Estrada de Ferro de Santos á Jundiahy, Santos, 30 Apr. 1876, Relatório de 1876, p. 12.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Beltráo, ‘O Civismo da Praça num século de labor,’ p. 75; Bahian Commercial Association to Vice-President of Province, Salvador, 10 Jan. 1873, Relatório de 1873, p. 13.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Associaçáo Commercial Beneficente de Pernambuco, Relatório de 1871, pp. 10–11; Associaçĩo Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, Relatório de 1881, pp. 52–53 and Relatório de 1872, documents 4 & 5 (not numbered).Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Beltrāo, ‘ O Civismo da Praça num século de labor’, p. 75.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Viveiros, op. cit., 11, pp. 252–3; Commercial Association of Rio de Janeiro to Agent, Compagnie des Messageries Impériales, Rio, 19 Jan. 1870, Relatório de 1870, p. 8.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Eisenberg, op. cit., p. 59; Jornal de Notícias (Rio de Janeiro), 31 Dec. 1858, p. 1; Associação Commercial Beneficente de Pernambuco, Relatório de 1867, p. 9.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Associação Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, Relatório de 1871, p. 4; Associaçáo Commercial de Santos, Re1atório de 1876, p. 12.Google Scholar

⁶² Commercial Beneficial Association of Pernambuco to Minister of Empire Affairs, Recife, 25 Jan. 1871, Relatório de 1871, p. 28.Google Scholar

⁶³ General Telegraph Bureau to Commercial Association of Rio de Janeiro, Rio, 18 July 1893, Relatório de 1901, p. 11.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ General assembly of 20 Jan. 1874, Livro 4 de Actas, AACB, p. 171.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Commercial Association of Santos to Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, Santos, undated, 1876, Relatório de 1876, p. 3; Commercial Association of Rio de Janeiro to Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, Rio, 21 Nov. 1872, Relatório de 1872, document 8 (not numbered).Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Coimbra, Creso, Visā;o histórica e análise conceitual dos transportes no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, CEDOP do Ministério dos Transportes, 1974), p. 142.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Associaçāo Commercial do Ceará, Relatório da Direcção da Associaçāo Commercial da Praa do Ceará, apresentado à asscmbléa geral da mesma cm 2 de Maio de 1870 (Fortaleza, Commércio, 1870), p. 6.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Commercial Association of Ceará to Emperor Dom Pedro II, Fortaleza, 5 Apr. 1872, Relatório de 1872, p. 35.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Associaçāo Commercial Beneficente de Pernambuco, Relatório de 1890, p. 25.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ See Praça do Commércio do Maranhāo, Relatório da Commissão da Praça do Commércio do Maranhāo, lido pelo respectivo presidente na sessão de 22 de Dezembro de 1870 (Luiz, São, Mattos, 1871), pp. 11–12; Associação Commercial do Ceará, Relatório de 1872, p. 7; and Associaç´o Commercial Beneficente de Pernambuco, Relatório de 1891, p. 26.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Associação Commercial Beneficente de Pernambuco, Relatório de 1884, p. 48; Commercial Beneficial Association of Pernambuco to Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, Recife, 19 June 1890, Relatório de 1890, pp. 59–61.Google Scholar

⁷² Commissão da Praça do Commércio do Pará, Relatório da Commissāo do Commércio do Pará aprescntado em assemblés geral de 10 de Janeiro de 1884 (Belém, Jornal da Tarde, 1884), pp. 12–13.Google Scholar

⁷³ Stein, Stanley J., The Brazilian Cotton Manufacture: Textile Enterprise in an Underdeveloped Area, 1850–1950 (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1957), p. 7; Poppino, op. cit., p. 209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁷⁴ Andrews, op. cit., pp. 104–5; Coimbra, op. cit., pp. 115–25.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Andrews, op. cit., p. 106; Rio de Janeiro Commercial Association to Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, Rio, 2 Apr. 1892, Relatório de 1901, p. 9.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Associaçāo Commercial Beneficente de Pernambuco, Relatório de 1890, p. 20; Ridings, ‘The Merchant Elite and the Development of Brazil’, p. 344.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Graham, Britain and the Onset of Modernization, p. 69; Eisenberg, op. cit., pp. 56–57; Ridings, ‘The Merchant Elite and the Development of Brazil’ p. 349.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Poppino, op. cit., p. 209.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ The only exception was the Commercial Association of Maranhāo. See its Relatório de 1867, p. 14. The Bahian Commercial Association opposed open cabotage after 5873, when some of its directors took over a coastal steamer line. Compare Associaçāo Commercial da Bahia, Relatório de 1870, pp. 6–7, 76–8, and Informaçōes apresentadas pela commissāo parlamentar de inquérito ao corpo legislativo na terceira sessāo da décima oitava legislatura (Rio de Janciro. Typografia Nacional, 1883), p. 67.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Associação Commercial Beneficente de Pernambuco, Relatório de 1896, p. 24.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Ibid., p. 214; Joaquim Álvaro de Armada, Conflicto entre negociantes e fabricantes de chapéos? Discurso pronunciado em sessão do Conseiho Administrativo da Sociedade Auxiliadora de Indústria Nacional de 20 de Março de 1877 (Rio de Janeiro, J. Paulo Hildebrandt, 1877), pp. 10–12.

⁸² Viveiros, op. cit., II, 471 & 558.Google Scholar

⁸³ See Ridings, ‘The Merchant Elite and the Development of Brazil’.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Commercial Beneficial Association of Pernambuco to Governor of Pernambuco, Recife, 3 Dec. 1889, Relatório de 1890, pp. 9–11; Minutes, meeting of 1 Oct. 1849, Livro I de Actas, AACB, p. 302.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Commercial Association of Rio de Janeiro to Brazilian Parliament, Rio, 21 May 1875, Relatório de 1875, document I (not numbered); Associação Industrial, O Trabalho nacional e seus adversaários (de Janeiro, Rio, Leuzinger, G., 1881), p. 24.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Commercial Association of Rio de Janeiro to Minister of Treasury, Rio, 24 Jan. 1896, Relatório de 1901, pp. 10–11; Associação Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, Relatório de 1879, pp. 24–5. The wine was made from Brazilian sugar.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ The tariff of 1879, which showed ‘ protectionist tendencies ‘ (Stein, The Brazilian Cotton Manufacture, p. 16), was revised downward by 1881, provoking a reaction by industrialists. We do not agree with Leff, Nathaniel H. (‘Economic Retardation in Nineteenth-Century Brazil’, p. 489) that Brazil had a protective tariff from the 1840s on. It was not regarded as ‘protective‘ by either the Industrial Association or the commercial associations, who would have been happy to malign the tariff with such a term. On the inadequacy of nineteenth-century Brazilian tariff protection see Luz, passim.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Stein, The Brazilian Cotton Manufacture, p. 83; Wileman, J. P., Brazilian Exchange: The Study of an Incontrovertible Currency (Reprint of the 1896 ed., New York, Greenwood Press, 1969), p. 16.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Associaçāo Industrial, Relatório apresentado à Assembléa Geral da Associação Industrial em sessão de 10 de Junho de 1882 pela Directorada da mesma associação (de Janeiro, Rio, Luezinger, G. & Filhos, 1882), pp. 20–1.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Ibid., pp. 8 & 27.

⁹¹ For example, minutes, general assembly of 21 Feb. 1881, Livro 4 de Actas, AACB, p. 376.Google Scholar

⁹² ‘ Sepoys and Imperialists: Techniques of British Power in Nineteenth-Century Brazil’, InterAmerican Economic Affairs, XXIII (Autumn 1969), 23–37.Google Scholar

⁹³ Ibid., pp. 35–6; Gallagher, John and Robinson, Ronald, ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’, Economic History Review, 2nd Series, 6 (1953), 6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁹⁴ Associaçāo Industrial, O Trabalho nacional, pp. v–ix.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Associaçāo Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, Estatutos da Associaçā;o Commercial do Rio de laneiro approvados por Decreto n. 6494 de I de Março de 1877 (Rio de Janeiro, Carioca, 1877), p. 20.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ Pinto, op. cit., p. 14; Viveiros, op. cit., 11, 449 and 475; Associaçāo Commercial de Sergipe, A Associação Commercial de Sergipe, 1872–1972 (Aracajú, Regina, 1972), p. 19.Google Scholar

⁹⁷ Luz, op. cit., p. 58. In 1871 Oscar Canstatt estimated a total of 24,000 merchant houses in Brazil run by foreigners and 29,000 run by Brazilians (including naturalized). Brazil: a terra e a gente (trans. Eduardo de Lima Castro, Rio de Janciro, Irmãos Pongetti, 1954), p. 145.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ There was little divergence of attitude between those houses specializing solely in exportation or importation. The import trade served to finance exportation and there was a common belief that export and import levels tended to balance one another. Furtado, p. 173n.; Morgan to Foreign Office, Salvador, 10 June 1854, London: Public Records Office/Foreign Office 13/321, ff. 353–64.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ This system was followed in the Bahian Commercial Association from 1851 on, as shown by the nearly unanimous vote for all directors. For example, minutes, general assembly of 22 Oct. 1851, de Actas, Livro I, AACB, pp. 344–5.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ Luz, op. cit., pp. 43–60.Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ Ibid., p. 53; Stein, The Brazilian Cotton Manufacture, p. 17.

¹⁰² Ibid., p. 84; Luz, op. cit., p. 54.

¹⁰³ Associação Industrial, O Trabalho nacional, pp. 317–34.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ Sociedade Auxiliadora da Indiúistria Nacional, Estatutos da Sociedade Auxiliadora da Indústria Nacional (de Janeiro, Rio, Vianna, N. L. & Filhos, 1857), pp. 9–10;Google ScholarBastos, Humberto, O Pensamento industrial no Brasil (2nd ed., São Paulo, Martins, 1952), pp. 42 and 98.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ Luz, op. cit., 46–8.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ Associação Industrial, Relatório de 1882, p. 18.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Associaçáo Industrial, Reprcscntaçáo dirigida ao Exm. Sr. Ministro da Fazenda pela Associaçāo Industrial, relativa ao Projecto da Tarifa das Alf ándegas, e de conformidade corn os relatórios dos representantes de diversas indústrias (Rio de Janeiro, Central, 1881), pp. 3–7.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ The Industrial Association's first general assembly was attended by only twenty members. Relatório de 1882, p.27.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁹ Ibid., pp. 76–906.

¹¹⁰ Former prime minister the Viscount of Rio Branco was the President of SAIN in 1877; ex-directors of the Rio association included the Baron of Mesquita and the Count of São Salvador de Mattosinhos. Ibid., pp. I, 17, 50.

¹¹¹ All major commercial associations protested, and the antigold percentage agitation was often spurred by angry meetings of their memberships. Associaçāo Commercial Beneficente de Pernambuco, Relatório de 1890, pp. 13 and 49; minutes, meetings of 18 June 1890, 28 Mar., 30 May and 26 June 1891, de Actas, Livro, 1890–1896, AACRJ, pp. 5, 40, 44–5.Google Scholar

¹¹² Baer, Werner, Industrialization and Economic Development in Brazil (Homewood, Ill., Irwin, 1965), p. 85.Google Scholar

¹¹³ Stein, The Brazilian Cotton Manufacture, p. 85.Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ Rio de Janeiro Commercial Association to Brazilian Congress, Rio, 23 Aug. 1892, Relatório de 1901, pp. 17–19; Associação Commercial do Rio de Janeiro, Relatório de 1906, p. 20.Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ Ridings, ‘The Bahian Commercial Association’, p. 304.Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ Minutes, extraordinary meeting of 9 Dec. 1891, Livro 6 de Actas, AACB, pp. 5–7; Rio de Janeiro Commercial Association to Viscount of Cavalcanti, Rio, 9 Feb. 1892, Relatório de 1901, p. 3.Google Scholar

¹¹⁷ Luz, op. cit., pp. 149–150, 555.Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ Dean, Warren, The industrialization of São Paulo, 1880–1945 (Austin, The University of Texas Press, 1969), p. 29.Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ Bastos, op. cit., p. 28n.Google Scholar

¹²⁰ Ibid., pp. 133–4.

¹²¹ Schmitter, op. cit., p. 195.Google Scholar

¹²² Commercial associations undertook numerous other functions now commonly performed by government. These included arbitration of business disputes, administration of charity and relief services, and organization of fire and police protection. See Ridings, ‘The Bahian Commercial Association’.Google Scholar

¹²³ See, for example, Lipset, Seymour Martin, ‘Values, Education, and Entrepreneurship’, in Elites in Latin America (eds., Lipset, Seymour Martin and Solari, Aldo, New York, Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 43–4.Google Scholar

¹²⁴ As also affirmed in ibid., pp. 24–7.