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Chinese Plantation Workers and Social Conflict in Peru in the late Nineteenth Century*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 February 2009

Michael J. Gonzales
Michael J. Gonzales
Affiliation:
Michael J. Gonzales is Associate Professor of History at Northern Illinois University and Director of the Center for Latino and Latin American Studies.
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Extract

As the world capitalist system developed during the nineteenth century non-slave labour became a commodity that circulated around the globe and contributed to capital accumulation in metropolitan centres. The best examples are the emigration of millions of Asian indentured servants and European labourers to areas of European colonisation. Asians replaced emancipated African slaves on plantations in the Caribbean and South America, supplemented a declining slave population in Cuba, built railways in California, worked in mines in South Africa, laboured on sugarcane plantations in Mauritius and Fiji, and served on plantations in southeast Asia. Italian immigrants also replaced African slaves on coffee estates in Brazil, worked with Spaniards in the seasonal wheat harvest in Argentina, and, along with other Europeans, entered the growing labour market in the United States. From the perspective of capital, these workers were a cheap alternative to local wage labour and, as foreigners without the rights of citizens, they could be subjected to harsher methods of social control.1

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Latin American Studies , Volume 21 , Issue 3 , October 1989 , pp. 385 - 424
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1989

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Footnotes

*

Research for this article was funded by a Ford Foundation Fellowship in 1974–5 and by a Fulbright Fellowship in autumn 1987. 1 would like to thank the staffs of the Archivo del Fuero Agrario and the Archivo General de la Nación for granting me access to plantation records, and anonymous referees for their useful comments. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the International Congress of Americanists, Amsterdam, July, 1988.

References

1 Among the many studies on this subject are: Marks, Shula and Richardson, Peter (eds.), International Labour Migration: Historical Perspectives (London, 1984)Google Scholar; Tinker, Hugh, A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas, 1830–1920 (London, 1974)Google Scholar; Fraginals, Manuel Moreno, Pons, Frank Moya and Engerman, Stanley L. (eds.), Between Slavery and Free Labor: The Spanish-Speaking Caribbean in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1985)Google Scholar; Richardson, Peter, Chinese Mine Labour in the Transvaal (London, 1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stewart, Watt, Chinese Bondage in Peru (Durham, 1951)Google Scholar; Rodney, Walter, A History of the Guyanese Working People, 1881–1905 (Baltimore, 1981)Google Scholar; Cohen, Lucy M., Chinese in the Post-Civil War South (Baton Rouge, 1984);Google Scholar Holloway, Thomas H., Immigrants on the Land: Coffee and Society in São Paulo, 1886–1934 (Chapel Hill, 1980);Google Scholar and Scobie, James, Revolution on the Pampa (Austin, 1964).Google Scholar

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3 Plantation Agriculture and Social Control in Northern Peru, 1875–1933 (Austin, 1985), chs. 5 and 6Google Scholar; ‘Economic Crisis, Chinese Workers and the Peruvian Sugar Planters 1875–1900: A Case Study of Labour and the National Elite’, in Albert, Bill and Graves, Adrian (eds.), Crisis and Change in the International Sugar Economy 1860–1914 (Edinburgh, 1984), pp. 181–99.Google Scholar

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12 Libertos were children of slaves born after 28 July 1821, who were technically free but had to work for their parents' masters up to the age of 20, if female, and 24, if male.

13 Jacobsen, , ‘Peru's Slave Population’, pp. 49, 77–9Google Scholar; Macera, Pablo, Las plantaciones azucareras en el Perú, 1821–187; (Lima, 1974), pp. lxv, xxii, and ch. 3.Google Scholar

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16 Tinker, A New System of Slavery.

17 Richardson, Peter, ‘Coolies, Peasants, and Proletarians: The Origins of Chinese Indentured Labour in South Africa, 1904–1907’, in Marks and Richardson (eds.), International Labour Migration, pp. 167–86.Google Scholar

18 Camprubi, , Historia de los bancos, vol. 1, pp. 169–211Google Scholar; Castillo, Yepes del, Perú, 1820–1920, p. 131Google Scholar; and Deerr, Noel, The History of Sugar, vol. 2 (New York, 1949), p. 531.Google Scholar

19 This is discussed in Francisco Pérez Céspedes to Señores Aspíllaga Hermanos, 27 May 1877, Palto to Lima, Archivo del Fuero Agrario, Lima. Much of the information for this paper comes from the Aspíllaga family's private correspondence, which is now housed in the Archivo del Fuero Agrario in Lima. The names of the principal correspondents are referred to in the notes by their initials, except in those cases where they simply signed the title of the family firm, Aspíllaga Hermanos. The following is a list of all correspondents and titles that are abbreviated:

Antero Aspíllaga Barrera AAB Ismael Aspíllaga Barrera 1AB

Ramón Aspíllaga Barrera RAB Aspíllaga Hermanos AH

Baldomero Aspíllaga Barrera BAB Archivo del Fuero Agrario AFA

20 ‘Expediente sobre el reclamo formulado por varios asiáticos de la provincia’, Ica, 4 Apr. 1884, Biblioteca Nacional, Lima, D11457; ‘Expediente relativo sobre el reclamo formulado por la detentión de varios asiáticos en los pueblos de Supe, Chancay y Barranca’, Supe, 26 May 1886, Biblioteca Nacional, Lima, D5534.

21 See below, section on planter control.

22 Scott, Rebecca J., Slave Emancipation in Cuba: The Transition to Free Labor, 1860–1899 (Princeton, 1985), p. 100.Google Scholar

23 ‘Expediente sobre la averìguación practicada por la comisión china, asesorada por funcionarios del gobierno, respecto a la situatión de sus connacionales que prestan sus servicios en las haciendas’, Lima, 9 December, 1887, Biblioteca Nacional, Lima, D11416. Hereinafter cited as Chinese Commission Report, 1887, B.N.

24 ‘Oficio del Prefecto del Departamento de Lima al Director de Gobierno remitiéndole los cuadros y las actas de los acuerdos realizados por la comisión encargada de visitar los fundos donde existen asiáticos contratados’, Ica, 15 June 1888, Biblioteca Nacional, Lima, D5347.

25 Chinese Commission Report, 1887, B.N.

26 Ibid.

27 Ibid.

28 Ibid.

29 Ibid.

30 Ibid.

31 On the Aspíllaga family see Gonzales, , Plantation Agriculture, pp. 29–33.Google Scholar

32 Planilla de Trabajadores Chinos, Hacienda Palto, Aug. 1875–Dec. 1878, AFA.

33 Francisco Pérez Céspedes to AH, 31 July 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA; José Pérez y Albela to AH, 14 Nov. 1879, Palto to Lima, AFA.

34 José Pérez y Albela to AH, 26 Nov. 1878, Palto to Lima, AFA.

35 Francisco Pérez Céspedes to AH, 28 Sept. 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA.

36 Francisco Pérez Céspedes to AH, 4 Dec. 1877, Palto to Cayaltí, AFA.

37 José Pérez y Albela to AH, 21 Nov. 1879, Palto to Lima, AFA.

38 AH to RAB, 31 Aug. 1880, Lima to Palto, AFA; AH to RAB, 7 Sept. 1880, Lima to Palto, AFA.

39 José Pérez y Albela to AH, 7 Feb. 1881, Palto to Lima, AFA; José Pérez y Albela to AH, 9 March 1881, Palto to Lima, AFA; IAB to AH, 21 March 1882, Palto to Lima, AFA; Planilla No. 78 de pagos a los trabajadores, 16 July 1882, Manuel J. Brihuego, administrator, AFA.

40 Pastor, Humberto Rodríguez, ‘Biografías de Chinos Culies’, Kuntur, no. 6, 07–08., 1987, pp. 11–17.Google Scholar

41 Chinese Commission Report, 1887, B.N., and below. Although we know little about them, Chinese contractors also existed in Cuba. ‘Chinese workers who had served out their terms, or had escaped from their masters, were often grouped together into cuadrillas by entrepreneurs, themselves Chinese, and hired out’, Scott, p. 99.

42 Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost & Co., 8 Sept. 1881, Palto to Lima, AFA; Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost & Co., 12 Sept. 1881, Palto to Lima, AFA; Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost & Co., 18 April 1882, Palto to Lima, AFA; Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost & Co., 10 April 1882, Palto to Lima, AFA.;

43 IAB to AH, 24 July 1882, Palto to Lima, AFA.

44 AH to AH, 21 Mar. 1882, Palto to Lima, AFA.

45 IAB to AH, 24 July 1882, Palto to Lima, AFA.

46 Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost & Co., 21 Jan. 1883, Palto to Lima, AFA; Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost & Co., 6 Feb. 1883, Palto to Lima, AFA.

47 Manuel Brihuego to Señores Prevost & Co., 10 Oct. 1883, Palto to Lima, AFA.

48 Castillo, Rolando Pachas, ‘Impacto de la Guerra del Pacifico en las haciendas de Ica, Chincha, Pisco y Cañete’, in Reategui, Wilson et al. (eds.), La Guerra del Pacifico (Lima, 1979), vol. 1, pp. 197–221.Google Scholar

49 Ibid; IAB to AH, 12 May 1884, Palto to Lima, AFA.

50 Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost & Co., zo Jan. 1884, Palto to Lima, AFA.

51 On the Aspíllagas' financial problems see Gonzales, , Plantation Agriculture, p. 30.Google Scholar

52 Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost & Co., 11 Feb. 1884, Palto to Lima, AFA.

53 Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost & Co., 9 Jan. 1884, Palto to Lima, AFA.

54 Manuel J. Brihuego to Scñores Prevost & Co., 2 Nov. 1884, Palto to Lima, AFA.

55 Hacìenda Palto, Planilla No. 60 de pagos á los trabajadorcs, 12 May 1882, Manuel J. Brihuego, administrator, AFA.

56 Manuel J. Brihuego to AH, 15 Feb. 1885, Palto to Lima, AFA.

57 Manuel J. Brihuego to AH, 2 May 1888, Palto to Lima, AFA.

58 AH to José Velarde, 17 Feb. 1892, Lima to Palto, AFA.

59 Planilla No. 636 de los pagos del 3 al 9 de abril, 1893, 9 April 1893, Nestor V. Cerdeña; Planilla del pago del recojo de algodón Egipto de la hacienda Palto a treinta centavos la arroba; Planilla del pago del recojo de algodón de Metafice de la hacienda Palto a treinta centavos la arroba, AFA.

60 Planilla No. 636 de los pagos del 3 al 9 de abril, 1893, 9 April 1893, Nestor V. Cerdeña; Planilla del pago del recojo de algodón Egipto de la hacienda Palto a treinta centavos la arroba; Planilla del pago del recojo de algodón de Metafice de la hacienda Palto a treinta centavos la arroba, AFA.

61 RAB to AAB, 24 Dec. 1875, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 7 April 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 14 Nov. 1881, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 18 Dec. 1877, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 28 Aug. 1885, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

62 AH to AH, 7 April 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

63 In Bonilla, Heraclio, ‘The War of the Pacific and the National and Colonial Problem in Peru’, Past and Present, no. 81 (11. 1978), p. 110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

64 For example, contract dated Oct. 1884, Cayaltí Archive, AFA.

65 AH to AH, 9 June 1891, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

66 AH to AH, 1 Nov. 1892, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

67 AH to AH, 12 Oct. 1889, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 15 Feb. 1890, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 7 June 1893, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 11 Nov. 1897, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

68 AH to AH, 16 Nov. 1895, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 8 March 1897, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 24 Jan. 1899, Cayalti to Lima, AFA.

69 Gonzales, Michael J., ‘Capitalist Agriculture and Labour Contracting in Northern Peru, 1880–190;’, journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 12, part ii (11. 1980), pp. 291–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

70 AH to AH, 5 June 1899, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

71 Chinese Commission Report, 1887, B.N.

72 Ibid.

73 José Pérez y Albela to AH, 1 Nov. 1878, Palto to Lima, AFA; José Pérez y Albela to AH, 9 Aug. 1878, Palto to Lima, AFA; Francisco Pérez Céspedes to AH, 30 Oct. 1877, Palto to Cayaltí, AFA; E. Augusto to Geraldo Pérez, 12 March 1876, Palto to Cayaltí, AFA; Francisco Pérez Céspedes to AH, 21 July 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA; José Pérez y Albela to AH, 11 Oct. 1878, Palto to Lima, AFA.

74 José Pérez y Albela to AH, 11 April 1879, Palto to Lima, AFA; Francisco Pérez Céspedes to AH, 30 Oct. 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA; José Pérez y Albela to AH, 9 July 1878, Palto to Lima, AFA; José Pérez y Albela to AH, 16 July 1878, Palto to Lima, AFA; José Pérez y Albela to AH, 28 March 1879, Palto to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 19 Nov. 1878, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 25 Nov. 1878, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 10 Oct. 1888. Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 7 Nov. 1888, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

75 Chinese Commission Report, 1887, B.N.

76 Informe, Chinese consul Ten Ayan, subprefect of Trujillo Lizardo Lavalle, interpreter P. A. Ponky, Biblioteca Nacional; Jesus García y García to el ministro de gobierno, 21 Aug. 1893, Biblioteca Nacional.

77 ‘Orden interior de la Hacienda de Palto’, 12 March 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA. Fragment of document.

78 AAB to AH, 30 April 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA. For examples of whippings at Palto, see: E. Augusto to AH, 7 March 1876, Palto to Lima, AFA; Francisco Pérez Céspedes to AH, 19 June 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA; José Pérez y Albela to AH, 11 Oct. 1878, Palto to Lima, AFA.

79 AH to AH, 31 July 1877, Cayaltí;to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 11 Nov. 1892, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

80 Chinese Commission Report, 1887, B.N.

81 Gonzales, , Plantation Agriculture, pp. 97–103.Google Scholar

82 José Pérez y Albela to AH, 12 Dec. 1879, Palto to Lima, AFA.

83 AH to José Pérez y Albela, 10 Dec. 1879, Lma to Palto, AFA.

84 José Pérez y Albela to AH, 19 Dec. 1879, Palto to Lima, AFA.

85 AH to José Pérez y Albela, 25 Dec. 1879, Lima to Palto, AFA.

86 AH to José Pérez y Albela, 15 Dec. 1879, Lma to Palto, AFA.

87 José Pérez y Albela, to AH, 19 Dec. 1879, Palto to Lima, AFA.

88 AH to AH, 14 Aug. 1876, Cayalti to Lima, AFA.

89 AH to AH, 18 Aug. 1876, Cayalti to Lima, AFA.

90 AH to AH, 1 Sept. 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

91 AH to AH, 31 July 1877, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

92 AH to AH, 2 July 1886, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; RAB to AAB, 12 Nov. 1888, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; RAB to AAB, 12 Nov. 1875, Cayaltíto Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 7 Nov. 1888, Cayaltíto Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 20 Dec. 1888, Cayalti to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 1 Nov. 1892, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 21 Aug. 1895, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

93 Gonzales, , Plantation Agriculture, pp. 32–3.Google Scholar

94 Spence, Jonathan, ‘Opium Smoking in Ch'ing China’, in Wakeman, Frederick Jr and Grant, Caroline (eds.), Conflict and Control in Late Imperial China (Berkeley & Los Angeles, 1975).Google Scholar

95 According to Pablo Macera, between 1852 and 1879, 767, 401 pounds of opium were sold to Peru by Britain. See Macera, , Las plantaciones azucareras, p. cxviii.Google Scholar

96 ‘Estanco del opio’, El Comercio, 10 Jan. 1888; El Comercio, 27 Feb. 1888; El Peruano, 27 Sept. 1877; AH to AH, 19 May 1891, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

97 AH to AH, 1 May 1885, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 12 May 1891, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 18 April 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 24 April 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 8 May 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 11 March 1879, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 3 Nov. 1891, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

98 AH to AH, 7 April 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 18 April 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 8 May 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 11 March 1879, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 28 Oct. 1879, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 13 Jan. 1880, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 21 July, 1891, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 11 April 1893, Cayaltí; to Lima, AFA.

99 Gonzales, , Plantation Agriculture, pp. 102–3.Google Scholar

100 José Pérez y Albela to AH, 4 April 1879, Palto to Lima, AFA; José Pérez y Albela to AH, 21 March 1879, Palto to Lima, AFA.

101 Gonzales, , Plantation Agriculture, ch. 4.Google Scholar

102 Chinese Commission Report, 1887, B.N.

103 AH to AH, 8 May 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 12 May 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 18 July 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; RAB to AAB, 4 Jan. 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; RAB to AAB, 25 Jan. 1876, Cayaltíto Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 4 June 1878, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA. This was also the most common way for Chinese to commit suicide in Cuba: Juan Pérez de la Riva, El barracón: Esclavitud y capitalismo en Cuba (Barcelona, 1975), p. 70.

104 AH to AH, 8 May 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; RAB to AAB, 4 Jan. 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

105 Pastor, Humberto Rodríguez, La Rebelión de los Rostros Pintados (Huancayo, Peru, 1979). P. 34.Google Scholar

106 Méndez, , ‘La otra historia’, pp. 13, 45.Google Scholar

107 Riva, Pérez de la, El barracón, p. 67.Google Scholar

108 Chinese Commission Report, 1887, B.N.

109 Basadre, Jorge, Historia de la Repúblics del Perú, 4th ed., 2 vols. (Lima, 1949), vol. 2, p. 22;.Google Scholar

110 RAB to AAB, 21 Sept. 1875, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; RAB to AAB, 5 Oct. 1875, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; RAB to AAB, 8 Oct. 1875, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 8 May 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 21 May 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AAB to AH, 19 June 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 18 July 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 21 Feb. 1877, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 2 June 1877, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 6 July 1877, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 16 July 1878, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 11 Sept. 1877, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 14 Sept. 1877, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 16 Oct. 1880, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AAB to 1AB, 3 May 1881, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; unsigned letter dated 8 June 1882, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

111 RAB to LAB, 26 July 1881, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 4 Oct. 1880, Cayaltíto Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 6 July 1889, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AAB to AH, 1 Nov. 1880, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

112 AH to AH, 18 July 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 14 Sept. 1887, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; RAB to 1AB, 26 July 1881, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; RAB to AAB, 5 Oct. 1875, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

113 AH to AH, 11 Sept. 1877, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 18 Feb. 1879, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 21 May 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; RAB to AAB, 8 Oct. 1875, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 2 June 1877, Cayaltíto Lima, AFA; RAB to AAB, 8 Oct. 1875, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 14 Sept. 1877, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

114 RAB to AAB, 5 Oct. 187s, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

115 José Pérez y Albela to AH, 19 July 1878, Palto to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 10 Sept. 1880, Lima to Palto, AFA; José Pérez y Albela to AH, 24 July 1878, Palto to Lima, AFA; Francisco Pérez Céspedes to AH, 17 April 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA; E. Augusto to AH, 31 March 1876, Palto to Lima, AFA; Francisco Pérez Céspedes to AH, 27 July 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA.

116 Francisco Pérez Céspedes to AH, 17 April 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA.

117 Pastor, Rodríguez, ‘Biografías de Chinos’, p. 14.Google Scholar

118 E. Augusto to AH, 31 March 1876, Palto to Lima, AFA.

119 AH to AH, 19 Nov. 1878, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 25 Nov. 1878, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

120 AH to AH, 10 Oct. 1888, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 7 Nov. 1888, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

121 E. Augusto to AH, 31 March 1876, Palto to Lima, AFA.

122 Francisco Pérez Céspedes to AH, 30 Oct. 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA.

123 Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost & Co., 30 June 1881, Palto to Lima, AFA; Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost & Co., 7 July 1881, Palto to Lima, AFA.

124 Manuel J. Brihuego to Señeores Prevost & Co., 9 May 1882, Palto to Lima, AFA.

125 See Gonzales, , Plantation Agriculture, pp. 103–6Google Scholar, for a discussion of health conditions at Cayaltí and along the coast. For Palto see Pastor, Humberto Rodríguez, ‘Salud y muerte en los trabajadores chinos de una hacienda costeña’, in Pastor, Humberto Rodríguez (ed.), Chinos culies: bibliografía y fuentes, documentos y ensayos (Lima, 1984), pp. 150–75.Google Scholar

126 Rodríguez, Pastor, ‘Salud y muerte’, p. 166.Google Scholar Rodríguez puts the number of Chinese at Cayaltí at 800, but the true number is closer to 420.

127 Francisco Pérez Céspedes to AH, 21 Sept. 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA.

128 AAB to AH, 30 April 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA; José Pérez y Albela to AH, 11 April 1879, Palto to Lima, AFA.

129 For example; ‘Peones libres have been employed in weeding because the contracted workers left over from ploughing all take turns going to the hospital. There are always 5 or 6 even 7, this game is played among them, because the truly ill the past two weeks are no more than Matos and Atac flaco.’ Manuel J. Brihuego to Muy Señores Míos, 30 June 1881, Palto to Lima, AFA.

130 José Pérez y Albela to AH, n Oct. 1878, Palto to Lima, AFA.

131 José Pérez y Albela to AH, 5 April 1878, Palto to Lima, AFA.

132 Cf. p. 18.

133 Manuel J. Brihuego to Muy Señores Míos, 9 June 1881, Palto to Lima, AFA; Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost & Co., 16 Aug. 1881, Palto to Lima, AFA; Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost y Co., 9 May 1882, Palto to Lima, AFA: Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost y Co., 24 Aug. 1884, Palto to Lima, AFA.

134 E. Augusto to AH, 7 March 1876, Palto to Lima, AFA.

135 AAB to AH, 30 April 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA.

136 Francisco Pérez Céspedes to AH, 21 July 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA.

137 E. Augusto to AH, 11 April 1876, Palto to Lima, AFA.

138 Francisco Pérez Céspedes to AH, 10 July 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA; AH to Scñor Representante del Propietario de la Hda. de ‘Urrutia’, 23 Aug. 1877, Palto to Lima, AFA.

139 Cf. pp. 25–7.

140 Aspíllagas y Cia. to Señores Zaracóndegui y Cia., 6 Sept. 1865, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

141 Manuel J. Brihuego to Señores Prevost Co., 11 July 1882, Palto to Lima, AFA.

142 Quoted in Macera, Las plantaciones azucareras, p. cxxi.

143 Cole, , Peruvians, pp. 139–40, 200.Google Scholar

144 Rodríguez Pastor, La Rebelión.

145 Ibid., pp. 72–9.

146 Basadre, , Historia, vol. 2, p. 225Google Scholar; Gonzales, , Plantation Agriculture, pp. 31–2Google Scholar; Bonilla, , ‘The War of the Pacific’, pp. 92–119.Google Scholar

147 José Pérez y Albela, ‘Razón de los animales perdidos y muertos de la Hda. Palto’, 28 March 1881, AFA; RAB to IAB, 26 July 1881, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 4 Oct 1880, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA, AH to AH, 6 July 1889, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AAB to AH, 1 Nov. 1880, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

148 RAB to IAB, 26 July 1881, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 4 Oct. 1880, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 6 July 1889, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AAB to AH, 1 Nov. 1880, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

149 José Pérez y Albela, ‘Razón de los animales perdidos y muertos de la Hda. Palto’, 28 March 1881, AFA; RAB to IAB, 26 July 1881, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 4 Oct. 1880, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 6 July 1889, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AAB to AH, 1 Nov. 1880, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

150 Bonilla, , ‘The War of the Pacific’, pp. 107–8.Google Scholar

151 Pastor, Rodríguez, Le Rebelión, p. 95.Google Scholar

152 Bonilla, ‘The War of the Pacific’.

153 Ibid., p. 105.

154 Ibid., p. 107.

155 Ibid., p. 109.

156 Unanue], Juan de Arona [Pedro Paz-Soldán y, La inmigración en el Perú: Monografía histórico-crítica, 2nd ed. (Lima, 1947), pp. 99–102.Google Scholar Also quoted in Bonilla, pp. 109–10. Translation is by Eric J. Hobsbawm.

157 Chinese Commission Report, 1887, B.N.

158 See above, section on planter control.

159 Chinese Commission Report, 1887, B.N.

160 AH to AH, 12 May 1876, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA; AH to AH, 12 May 1891, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

161 Gerardo Pérez to AH, 21 Oct. 1884, Palto to Lima, AFA.

162 AH to AH, 24 Jan. 1893, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

163 Engelsen, , ‘Social Aspects’, pp. 355–95.Google Scholar

164 AH to AH, 28 May 1878, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

165 On opium, cf. pp. 27–9.

166 AH to AH, 24 Jan. 1893, Cayaltí to Lima, AFA.

167 Gonzales, , Plantation Agriculture, ch. 2Google Scholar; Gilbert, Dennis, The Oligarchy and the Old Regime in Peru (Ithaca, New York, 1977), pp. 170–1.Google Scholar