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3 Gordon Brown quoted in Daily Mail, 15 January 2005, for Africa needing Western interventions. For a nuanced version, see Paul, Collier, The bottom billion: why the poorest countries are failing and what can be done about it, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.Google Scholar

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6 For an explicit treatment, see Anne, Phillips, The enigma of colonialism: British policy in West Africa, London: James Currey, 1989, pp. 111–32Google Scholar; Thomas, Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995Google Scholar. More common are rich and textured insights into interpretation of policy by indigenous agents, which are vaguer about overall policy: for example, Thomas Spear, Mountain farmers: moral economies of land and agricultural development in Arusha and Meru, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997; Susan, Bayly, Caste, society and politics in India from the eighteenth century to the modern age, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.Google Scholar

7 I use ‘modernity’ and ‘tradition’ narrowly, for specific ideal-typical phenomena in the fields of law and economics.

8 The culmination of this ‘whiggish’ view was J. Holland Rose, A. P. Newton, and E. A. Benians, eds., The Cambridge history of the British empire, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1940; see also Dodwell, H. H., Cambridge shorter history of India, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1935.Google Scholar

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15 See John Hurd’s chapter on railways, in Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds., The Cambridge economic history of India: volume 2, c. 1750–c.1970, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. For Africa, see Michael, Crowder, West African resistance: the military response to colonial occupation, London: Hutchinson, 1971Google Scholar; White, Colin M., ‘The concept of social savings in theory and practice’, Economic History Review, 29, 1, 1976, pp. 82–100CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dummett, Robert E., ‘Joseph Chamberlain, metropolitan finance, and railway policy in British West Africa in the late nineteenth century’, English Historical Review, 90, 1975, pp. 287–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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21 D. J. Morgan, The official history of colonial development, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1980, 5 vols. See also Johnson U. J., Asiegbu, Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: a thematic documentary history, New York: NOK, 1984Google Scholar; Charles H. Ambler, Kenyan communities in the age of imperialism: the central region in the late nineteenth century, Yale, CT: Yale University Press, 1988. For a non-British example, see Catherine, Newbury, The cohesion of oppression: clientship and ethnicity in Rwanda, 1860–1960, New York: Columbia University Press, 1988.Google Scholar

22 See Robert H. Bates, Essays on the political economy of rural Africa, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983; N. Chazan et al., eds., Politics and society in contemporary Africa, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983; Richard Joseph, Democracy and prebendal politics in Nigeria: the rise and fall of the second republic, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. For a review of these approaches, see S. Berry, ‘Hegemony on a shoestring: indirect rule and access to agricultural land’, Africa, 62, 3, 1992, pp. 327–55.

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29 Ferguson, ‘British imperialism’, pp. 8–9.

30 For India, John D. M. Derrett, Religion, law and the state in India, London: Faber, 1968; David, Washbrook, ‘Law, state and agrarian society in colonial India’, Modern Asian Studies, 15, 5, 1981, pp. 649–721Google Scholar; Gregory C. Kozlowski, Muslim endowments and society in British India, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985; Michael R. Anderson, ‘Islamic law and the colonial encounter in British India’, in David Arnold and Peter Robb, eds., Institutions and ideologies: a SOAS South Asian reader, Richmond: Curzon Press, 1993, pp. 165–85 (reprinted as ‘Women Living Under Muslim Law’ Occasional Paper no. 7, June 1996, from which page references are taken); Nicholas, Dirks, ‘From little king to landlord: property, law, and the gift under the Madras Permanent Settlement’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 28, 2, 1986, pp. 307–33Google Scholar; Klugle, Scott A., ‘Framed, blamed and renamed: the recasting of Islamic jurisprudence in colonial South Asia’, Modern Asian Studies, 35, 2, 2001, pp. 257–313.Google Scholar For Africa, Elizabeth F. Colson, ‘The impact of the colonial period on the definition of land rights’, in Victor Turner, ed., Colonialism in Africa, 1870–1960, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971, vol. 3, pp. 193–215; Chanock, Law; Kristin Mann and Richard Roberts, eds., Law in Colonial Africa, London: Heinemann, 1991; Margaret J. Hay and Marcia Wright, eds., African women and the law: historical perspectives, Boston, MA: Boston University Press, 1982. Lauren, Benton, Law and colonial cultures: legal regimes in world history, 1400–1900, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002Google Scholar, accepts that practice stopped well short of the aspiration for a universal legal order across the empire.

31 Washbrook, ‘Law’, pp. 662 and 666, mocks the formal separation of judicial and executive branches, whereas Dirks, ‘From little king’, p. 332, suggests that courts enjoyed genuine autonomy. Mamdani, Citizen, argues that civic courts possessed autonomy, but not those of the native authorities.

32 Anderson, ‘Islamic law’, pp. 5–6.

33 Klugle, ‘Framed’, p. 271, Anderson, ‘Islamic law’, p. 5.

34 Anderson, ‘Islamic law’, p. 16.

35 Washbrook, ‘Law’, p. 653.

36 Ibid.

37 Peter Fitzpatrick, ‘Law, plurality and underdevelopment’, in David Sugarman, ed., Legality, ideology and the state, London: Academic Press, 1983, pp. 159–83.

38 Anderson, ‘Islamic Law’, p. 21.

39 Mamdani, Citizen, pp. 109–10; Crowder, West Africa, p. 426.

40 Austen, Ralph A., ‘Review’, Law and History Review, 17, 2, 1999, pp. 406–8Google Scholar; Brett L. Shadle, ‘“Changing traditions to meet current altering conditions”: customary law, African courts and the rejection of codification in Kenya, 1930–60’, Journal of African History, 40, 1999, pp. 411–31.

41 Berry, ‘Hegemony’, p. 346, citing Richards, Audrey I., Land, labour and diet in Northern Rhodesia: an economic study of the Bemba tribe, London: Oxford University Press, 1939.Google Scholar

42 Berry, ‘Hegemony’, p. 346–7, citing Inez, Sutton, ‘Law, chieftaincy and conflict in colonial Ghana: the Ada case’, African Affairs, 83, 330, 1984, p. 47Google Scholar; and John Dunn and A. F. Robertson, Dependence and opportunity: political change in Ahafo, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973.

43 Shadle, ‘“Changing traditions”’, p. 414.

44 Mamdani, Citizen, pp. 115–17.

45 Martin Chanock, ‘Making customary law: men, women and courts in colonial Northern Rhodesia’, in Hay and Wright, African Women, pp. 53–67.

46 Shadle, ‘“Changing Traditions”’, pp. 414–16.

47 See Crowder, West Africa, p. 426; Richard Rathbone, ‘Law, lawyers and politics in Ghana in the 1940s’, in Dagmar Engels and Shula Marks, eds., Contesting colonial hegemony: state and society in Africa and India, London: British Academic Press, 1994, pp. 227–47.

48 Mamdani, Citizen, p. 129.

49 Shadle, ‘“Changing Traditions”’, pp. 415, 421–6.

50 Ibid., p. 425.

51 Ibid., p. 424.

52 Mamdani, Citizen, p. 129.

53 Washbrook, ‘Law’, p. 655.

54 Maria, Misra, Business, race and politics in British India c.1860–1960, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 56.Google Scholar

55 Washbrook, ‘Law’, p. 672.

56 Ibid., pp. 673–4.

57 Mamdani, Citizen, pp. 138–48.

58 Ibid., p. 17.

59 Berry, ‘Hegemony’, p. 336.

60 Ibid., p. 343.

61 Ibid., p. 340.

62 Klugle, ‘Framed’, p. 277.

63 Metcalf, Ideologies, ch. 2.

64 For interpretations of the 1857 Rebellion, see Thomas, Metcalf, The aftermath of the revolt: India 1857–70, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964, ch. 1.Google Scholar For British reaction, see Washbrook, ‘Law’, pp. 182–4.

65 Metcalf, Ideologies, pp. 43–8.

66 Metcalf, Aftermath, ch. 2.

67 Misra, Business, ch. 6; Clive Dewey, ‘The Government of India’s “new industrial policy” 1900–1925: formulation and failure’, in Clive J. Dewey and Kirti N. Chaudhuri, eds., Economy and society, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1979; Gooptu, Politics, pp. 77–84.

68 Dewey, ‘Government of India’, pp. 237–46; Gooptu, Politics, p. 98.

69 Washbrook, ‘Law’, pp. 692–6.

70 Ibid.

71 Frederick Cooper, ‘Modernizing colonialism and the limits of empire’, in Calhoun et al., eds., Lessons of empire, pp. 63–72.

72 For India, Jack Gallagher, Gordon Johnson, and Anil Seal, eds., Locality, province and nation: essays on Indian politics 1870–1940, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973. For Africa, Bruce, Berman, ‘Ethnicity, party and the African state: the politics of uncivil nationalism’, African Affairs, 97, 1998, pp. 305–41.Google Scholar

73 David, Washbrook, ‘Economic depression and the making of “traditional” society in colonial India’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 3, 1993, pp. 237–63, esp. pp. 249–55Google Scholar; Phillips, Enigma of Colonialism, introduction.

74 Berry, ‘Hegemony’, p. 330.

75 For the Indian Civil Service, see Philip, Mason, The founders, London: Jonathan Cape, 1953Google Scholar, and The guardians, London: Jonathan Cape, 1954, republished as The men who ruled India, London: Jonathan Cape, 1985; Roland, Hunt and John, Harrison, The district officer in India 1930–1947, London: Scolar Press, 1980Google Scholar. For Afriaca, see Lewis H. Gann and Peter Duigan, The rulers of British Africa 1870–1914, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1978; Henrika Kuklick, The imperial bureaucrat: the colonial administrative service in the Gold Coast 1920–1939, Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1979; John Smith, ed., Administering empire: the British colonial empire in retrospect, London: University of London Press, 1999; A. H. M. Kirk-Greene, Britain’s imperial administrators, 1858–1966, Oxford: Macmillan (St Antony’s series), 2000; A. H. M. Kirk-Greene, Symbol of authority: the British district officer in Africa, London: I. B. Tauris, 2006.

76 Dewey, Clive J., Anglo-Indian attitudes: the mind of the Indian Civil Service, London: Hambledon Press, 1993Google Scholar; John M. Compton, ‘Open competition and the Indian Civil Service, 1854–1876’, The English Historical Review, 83, 327, 1968, pp. 256–84; Barry Spangenberg, ‘The problem of recruitment for the Indian Civil Service during the late nineteenth century’, Journal of Asian Studies, 30, 2, 1971, pp. 341–60; Clive J. Dewey, ‘Images of the village community: a study in Anglo-Indian ideology’, Modern Asian Studies, 6, 3, 1972, pp. 291–328; Clive J. Dewey, ‘The education of a ruling caste: the Indian Civil Service in the era of competitive examination’, The English Historical Review, 88, 347, 1973, pp. 262–85.

77 For Africa, Robert, Heussler, Yesterday’s rulers: the making of the British colonial service, Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1963Google Scholar; Robert, Heussler, The British in Northern Nigeria, London: Oxford University Press, 1968Google Scholar; Robert Heussler, British Tanganyika: an essay and documents on district administration, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1971. For Malaya, Robert, Heussler, British rule in Malaya: the Malayan civil service and its predecessors, 1867–1942, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981Google Scholar; James de Vere Allen, ‘The Malayan Civil Service, 1874–1941’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 12, 1970, pp. 149–78.

78 Robin J. Moore, ‘The abolition of patronage in the ICS and the closure of Haileybury College’, Historical Journal, 7, 2, 1964, pp. 248–57.

79 Spangenberg, ‘Problem’, pp. 342–7.

80 Spangenberg, ‘Problem’, pp. 347–50; Dewey ‘Education’, pp. 268–74, 279–80.

81 A. C. Ewald, The Guide to the Indian Civil Service, London, 1870, p. 116.

82 Dewey, ‘Education’, pp. 274, 284; Spangenberg, ‘Problem’, pp. 350, 354–5; Compton, ‘Open competition’, pp. 277–81; David, Potter, India’s political administrators: from ICS to IAS, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 71.Google Scholar

83 Thomas H. Beaglehole, ‘From rulers to servants: The I.C.S. and the British demission of power in India’, Modern Asian Studies, 11, 2, 1977, pp. 237–55; Simon, Epstein, ‘District officers in decline: the erosion of British authority in the Bombay countryside 1919–1947’, Modern Asian Studies, 16, 3, 1982, pp. 493–518Google Scholar; Ann Ewing, ‘The Indian Civil Service 1919–1924: service discontent and the response in London and in Delhi’, Modern Asian Studies, 18, 1, 1984, pp. 33–53.

84 Bodleian Library, Oxford, MS Eng. Hist. MacDonell papers, C. 366, Draft report of committee appointed by the Secretary of State for India to enquire into the impediments to European recruitment for the Indian Services (1922); Heussler, British in Malaya, pp. 119–20.

85 Heussler, Yesterday’s ruler, chs. 2–3; for a more candid picture see Heussler’s private correspondence: Rhodes House Library, Oxford, MSS Brit.Eng.480, Robert W. Heussler papers (henceforth RHL, RWH), boxes 1 and 2.

86 Heussler, British in Malaya, p. 264.

87 Spangenberg, ‘Problem’, p. 343; Dewey, ‘Education’, pp. 283–5; Kahyin Cheong, ‘Study of MCS cadets’ attitudes towards the colonial population c. 1900–1940’, MSt thesis, University of Oxford, 2008, Appendix A.

88 RHL, RWH, 14/1/21, G. Hawkins to H. Boyson, 12 June 1969.

89 RHL, RWH 2/1/6–7, Anonymous, ‘Notes on interviews 1946’.

90 RHL, RWH 2/2/18, Heussler, Notes on interview with C. Cox, 16 November 1960.

91 Edinburgh Review, April 1874, cited in Spangenberg, ‘Problem’, p. 342–3.

92 George Birdwood, Competition and the Indian Civil Service, London, 1872, p. 10.

93 Compton, ‘Open competition’, p. 268; Heussler, British in Malaya, p. 261.

94 Heussler, Yesterday’s rulers, p. 72.

95 RHL, RWH 2/6/16–17, W. R. Crocker to Heussler, 16 August 1960.

96 RHL, RWH 2/1/30, Heussler, ‘Note on selection procedure ’, c. November 1960.

97 Ibid.

98 RHL, RWH 2/6/5, D. Blellochy to Heussler, 19 June 1962.

99 RHL, RWH 2/4/9, Heussler, Notes on discussions with Marjorie Perham, 16 June 1960.

100 Charles Trevelyan, cited by Compton, ‘Open Competition’, pp. 269–70.

101 RHL, RWH 2/4/49, Heussler, Notes on interview with E. R. Bevington, 12 April 1962.

102 For India, see Compton, ‘Open Competition’, p. 270; for Africa, see RHL, RWH 6/1/12, J. H. Canon, ‘Note on Northern Nigeria: personal thoughts on administration and progress, 1919–1929’.

103 RHL, RWH, 1/7, Heussler, Notes of discussion with C. Elliot, 28 September 1960.

104 RHL, RWH 2/1/25–7, Anonymous, Notes on interviews 1946.

105 RHL, RWH 2/1/24, Anonymous, Notes on interviews 1946.

106 RHL, RWH 1/7/33, K. D. D. Henderson to Heussler, 8 December, 10 October 1960.

107 RHL, RWH 2/1/27, Anonymous, Notes on interviews 1946’.

108 Henry S. Maine, cited in Dewey, ‘Education’, p. 279.

109 Jeanne, Morefield, Covenants without swords: idealist liberalism and the spirit of empire, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005, pp. 8–9.Google Scholar

110 Richard O. Winstedt, Malay grammar, Oxford, 1927, p. 108; William. E. Maxwell, Manual of the Malay language, London, 1906, pp. 95–116.

111 RHL, RWH 2/4/26, Ralph Furse, Interview with Heussler, 13 October 1960.

112 RHL, RWH, 9/1/94, W. D. Barron, Notes written in answer to Heussler’s questionnaire, n.d.

113 RHL, RWH, 9/1/63–4, E. C. G. Barrett to Heussler, 29 December 1974.

114 RHL, RWH, 14/3/35, R. Helps to Heussler, n.d.

115 Singapore Archives, box 4, file 10, MS T. P. Cromwell, 27.1.35, p.10, cited in Cheong, ‘Study of MCS attitudes’.

116 Heussler, British in Malaya, pp. 123–4.

117 RHL, RWH 9/1/61, E. C. G. Barrett to Heussler, 11 November 1975.

118 C. W. Harrison, Some notes on the government services in Malaya, London: Charing Cross, 1929, p. 66.

119 Heussler, British in Malaya, pp. 162–3.

120 For a classic view, see Dewey, ‘Images’.

121 David C. Dorward, ‘The development of the British colonial administration among the Tiv, 1900–1949’, African Affairs, 68, 273, 1979, pp. 316–33.

122 Harrison, Some Notes, p. 52.

123 RHL, RWH 9/1/62, E. C. G. Barrett to Heussler, 11 November 1975.

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127 For India, see Bayly, Caste, ch. 2. For Africa, see Bruce Berman, Dickson Eyoh, and Will Kymlicka, eds., Ethnicity and democracy in Africa, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, pp. 1–9.

128 Sarah, Berry, No condition is permanent: the social dynamics of agricultural change in sub-Saharan Africa, Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993, pp. 24–40Google Scholar; Spear, ‘Neo-traditionalism’, pp. 18–27.

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130 Pamela Price, ‘The “popularity” of the imperial courts of law: three views of the Anglo-Indian legal encounter’, in W. J. Mommsen and J. A. de Moor, eds., European expansion and law: the encounters of Europeans and indigenous law in 19th- and 20th-century Africa and India, Oxford: Berg, pp. 179–200.

131 Dirks, ‘From little king’ p. 332.

132 Roland K. Anderson, An introduction to the study of Anglo-Muhammadan law, London, 1894, p. 2.

133 Washbrook, ‘Economic depression’, p. 257.

134 Anderson, ‘Islamic law’, pp. 19–23; Klugle, ‘Framed’, pp. 294–313.

135 Berry, ‘Hegemony’, p. 328.

136 Quoted in Mamdani, Citizen, p. 115.

137 Rattray, cited in ibid.

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140 Quoted in Mamdani, Citizen, p. 125.

141 Metcalf, Ideologies, chs. 3–4.

142 RHL, RWH, 4/1/27–8, unsigned and undated note in Kisarawe District Book, c.1930.

143 RHL, RWH 4/1/67, unsigned and undated note in Kiserawe District Book, c.1930.

144 RHL, RWH 4/1/69–70, unsigned and undated note in Kisarawe District Book, c.1930.

145 RHL, RWH 4/1/71, unsigned and undated note in Kisarawe District Book, c.1930.

146 RHL, RWH, 4/1/73, unsigned and undated note in Kisarawe District Book, c.1930.