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² The meetings were London (1872), Stockholm (1878), Rome (1885), St Petersburg (1890), Paris (1895), Brussels (1900), Budapest (1905), Washington, DC (1910), London (1925), Prague (1930), Berlin (1935), and the Hague (1950). It has often been confused with similar congresses, including a few irregular meetings of its predecessor. Members of the IPC also wrote a number of histories of the organization, often at key moments of global reordering: see Ruggles-Brise, Evelyn, Prison reform at home and abroad: a short history of the international movement since the London congress, 1872, London: Macmillan, 1924Google Scholar;

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³ See the conclusions of Cooper, Frederic, ‘What is the concept of globalization good for? An African historian's perspective’, African Affairs, 100, 399, A2001, pp. 189–213Google Scholar; and the short response of

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⁵ Externalist approaches are either extremely laudatory of the growth internationalism, yet often overlooking the total absence of non-Western polities, or highly critical, arguing that the exclusion of these non-Western nations is built into the system itself through ‘standards of civilization’. See Iriye, Akira, Cultural internationalism and world order, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997, p. 35Google Scholar;

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¹¹ Although the location or even the existence of Wines's papers is unknown, his biographies provide a welcome source of information. See Sanborn, F. B., Wines, ‘E. C. and Sanborn’, prison reform: a memoir by F. B., Henderson, in Charles Richmond, Smith, Eugene, and Hart, Hastings Hornell, Correction and prevention, vol. 1: prison reform, New York: Charities Publication Committee, 1910, pp. 67–71Google Scholar;

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¹³ Geltner, Guy, The medieval prison: a social history, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008Google Scholar.

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²³ See for instance the words of one prison reformer in Mouat, F. J., ‘International prison statistics’, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 55, 4, 1892, p. 659Google Scholar.

²⁴ Henderson, Smith, and Hart, Correction and prevention, pp. 76–78Google Scholar. For more on the Social Science Association, see

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²⁵ Wines, State of prisons, p. 660Google Scholar. Reports on these experiments, such as Maconochie's, were often published in an early social scientific journal, Old and New.

²⁶ Wines, State of prisons, pp. 706–707Google Scholar.

²⁷ On these alternative movements see Beirne, Piers, Inventing criminology: essays on the rise of Homo criminalis, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993, ch. 5, pp. 233–237Google Scholar;

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³⁸ Wines, Actual state, pp. 23–24Google Scholar; idem, State of prisons, pp. 575–7.

³⁹ The quote comes from a letter of support from a Latin American minister: E. C. Wines, International congress on the prevention and repression of crime, including penal and reformatory treatment, definitely fixed to open on Wednesday, July 3rd, 1872 in the city of London. Proceedings of a public meeting, held in relation thereto, New York, January 26th, 1872: the Honorable Horatio Seymour in the chair, New York: American Church Press Company, Printers, 1872, p. 18.

⁴⁰ A number of works have recently been written on the International Statistical Congress: Nele Bracke ‘In search of comparability: the internationalisation of official statistics (1853–1945)’, in Jacques G. S. J. van Maarseveen, Paul M. M. Klep, and Ida H. Stamhuis, eds., The statistical mind in modern society: the Netherlands, 1850–1940, vol. 1, Amsterdam: Aksant, 2008, pp. 107–29; Randeraad, Nico, States and statistics in the nineteenth century: Europe by numbers, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2010Google Scholar;

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⁴² Porter, Theodore M., ‘Objectivity as standardization: the rhetoric of impersonality in measurement, statistics, and cost-benefit analysis’, in Allan Megill, ed., Rethinking objectivity, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994, p. 201Google Scholar.

⁴³ Mouat, Frederic J., ‘On international prison statistics’, Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 39, 2, June 1876, p. 311Google Scholar.

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⁴⁵ Gelbhaar, M. Oscar, ‘Observations sur la statistique pénitentiare internationale’, in Le Congrès Péniteniare International du Stockholm: memoires et rapports, tome second, Stockholm: Bureau de la Commission Péniteniare Internationale, 1879, p. 100Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Ibid., pp. 98–106.

⁴⁷ Statisique pénitentiaire internationale, Rome: Imprimerie Artero & Comp., 1875, first page (text unpaginated).

⁴⁸ For a summary of this unrealized attempt, see Wines, State of prisons, pp. 684–685Google Scholar: Bowring, ‘Proper purpose’, p. 79.

⁴⁹ Wines, State of prisons, p. iiiGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁰ Teeters, Negley K., ‘The first International Penitentiary Congresses 1846–47–57’, Prison Journal, 26, 3, July 1946, pp. 190–211Google Scholar.

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⁵² The federal government in turn tried (unsuccessfully) to curtail his actions by refusing to give him his appropriation from Congress. NARA, RG 59, M40, Roll 85: 119–20, ‘F. W. Seward to E. C. Wines on 22 December 1877 enclosing the report on “The claim of the Rev. E. C. Wines D.D. to International Penitentiary Congress”’.

⁵³ Pears, Prisons, p. iii; Buffington, Robert M., Criminal and citizen in modern Mexico, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2000, pp. 93–94Google Scholar.

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⁵⁵ The IPC commission was the governing and organizing body established in the 1890s. Although initially represented through Wines, the American government had stopped participating in the organization of the IPC following his death. Barrows, Report of the delegates, p. 4.

⁵⁶ Porter, ‘Objectivity as standardization’, pp. 197–201Google Scholar.

⁵⁷ Porter, Theodore M., Trust in numbers: the pursuit of objectivity in science and public life, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995Google Scholar, p. ix.

⁵⁸ Crosland, Maurice, ‘The congress on definitive metric standards, 1798–1799: the first international scientific conference?’, Isis, 60, 2, 1969, pp. 226–231CrossRefGoogle Scholar;

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⁵⁹ Botsman, Punishment and power, pp. 171–172Google Scholar, 271, n. 30; Wines, ‘International prison reform’, p. 382.

⁶⁰ NARA, RG 59, M179, Roll 368, Hamilton Fish to E. C. Wines, 8 April 1872; Roll 71, 420–1, Fish to Wines, 9 April 1872; Wines, Report on the International Penitentiary Congress, p. 482.

⁶¹ Wines, Actual state, p. 24.

⁶² Arthur Griffiths, The history and romance of crime, vol. 12: oriental prisons, London: Grolier Society, n.d., p. 235.

⁶³ Wines, ‘International prison reform’, p. 380Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ Wines, State of prisons, pp. 385–386Google Scholar; idem, International congress … public meeting, pp. 17–18.

⁶⁵ Wines, State of prisons, pp. 385–387Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ In that other Ottoman territory of Egypt, extraterritoriality was not ended until 1949. See Kayaoğlu, Turan, Legal imperialism: sovereignty and extraterritoriality in Japan, the Ottoman empire, and China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp. 104–105CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The secondary sources in Turkish on the IPC are meagre. See

Demirel, Fatmagül, ‘1890 Petersburg Hapishaneler Kongresi (The 1890 St Petersburg Prison Congress)’, Toplumsal Tarih (Social History), 89, May 2001, pp. 11–14Google Scholar. Although I disagree with its statements regarding the IPC, the best source on Ottoman prisons is Kent Fielding Schull, ‘Penal institutions, nation-state construction, and modernity in the late Ottoman empire, 1908–1919’, PhD thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 2007, pp. 36–56.

⁶⁷ Iriye, Cultural internationalism, p. 35; Rodgers, Atlantic crossings, p. 33.

⁶⁸ While the literature on the prison in India is relatively well developed, there is still no comprehensive history. Arnold, David, ‘India: the contested prison’, in Dikötter and Brown, Cultures of confinement, pp. 147–184Google Scholar, provides a cursory overview. For a fuller breadth of sources, see the bibliography in David Arnold's, Clare Anderson's, and Ian Brown's chapters in the same book.

⁶⁹ McNair, J. F. A., Prisoners their own warders: a record of the convict prison at Singapore in the Straits Settlements established 1825, discontinued 1873, together with a cursory history of the convict establishments at Bencoolen, Penang, and Malacca from the year 1797, Westminster: Archibald Constable and Co., 1899Google Scholar, p. x;

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⁷⁰ See, for instance, Cohn, Bernard S., Colonialism and its forms of knowledge, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996Google Scholar;

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Lawrenson, Ross, ‘Frederick John Mouat (1816–97), MD FRCS LLD, of the Indian Medical Service’, Journal of Medical Biography, 15, 2007, pp. 201–205CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also his two obituaries, ‘Dr. Frederick John Mouat M.D., L.L.D.’, Bulletin de l'Institut International de Statistique, 10, 1897, pp. 153–5; ‘Frederick John Mouat, M.D. and LL.D. Edin., F.R.C.S. Eng, Deputy Inspector-General of Hospitals, Bengal Army (retired)’, British Medical Journal, 6 March 1897, pp. 628–9.

⁷² Fr A. de Rompstorff, ‘Port Blair penal settlement in British India’, in Transactions of the National Congress … 1870, p. 159; ‘La transportation aux Iles Andamans’, in Le Congrès Péniteniare, pp. 703–12.

⁷³ Mouat, Frederic J., ‘On prison statistics and discipline in Lower Bengal’, Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 25, 2, June 1862, pp. 179Google Scholar, 214; idem, ‘On prison discipline and statistics in Lower Bengal’, Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 30, 1, March 1867, pp. 29, 45; idem, ‘On prison discipline and statistics in Lower Bengal’, Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 35, 1, March 1872, p. 57.

⁷⁴ Mouat, ‘On prison statistics’ (1862), pp. 181–182Google Scholar; idem, ‘International prison statistics’ (1892), p. 660. For a short description of Mouat's ethnographic project, see ‘On prison discipline’ (1872), pp. 59–64.

⁷⁵ Mouat, ‘On prison discipline’ (1872), p. 76Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ Mouat, ‘On prison statistics’ (1862), pp. 191–194Google Scholar; idem, ‘On prison discipline’ (1867), pp. 25–9, 48; idem, ‘On prison discipline’ (1872), pp. 58, 71, 87; idem, ‘Prison labour, as an instrument of punishment, profit, and reformation: an episode in the prison history of lower Bengal’, Journal of the Society of Arts, 23 February 1872, p. 267; idem, ‘On prison ethics and prison labour’, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 54, 2, June 1891, pp. 233–4.

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⁸⁰ Mouat, ‘On prison discipline’ (1872), pp. 82–83Google Scholar, 95; idem, ‘Prison labour’ (1872), p. 272; idem, ‘On international prison statistics’ (1876), p. 321.

⁸¹ These prison goods exhibitions were present in the 1885 and 1890 IPCs. Mouat, ‘Prison labour’ (1872), pp. 269, 275; idem, ‘On prison ethics’ (1891), p. 214.

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⁸³ Mouat, ‘On international prison statistics’ (1876), p. 323Google Scholar.

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⁸⁵ In this scheme prisoners moved up a progressive scale of conditions and responsibility based upon their reformed conduct, until they became guards. Mouat, ‘On prison discipline’ (1872), p. 93; idem, ‘Prison labour’ (1872), pp. 274–275Google Scholar; idem, ‘On international prison statistics’ (1876), p. 322; idem, ‘On prison ethics’ (1891), pp. 226, 232, 235–6.

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