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IV. Conditions and Systems of Exploitation: Some Preliminary Remarks on Colonial Exploitation Systems inJava and India in the Nineteenth Century

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 April 2010

A. M. Djuliati Suroyo
A. M. Djuliati Suroyo
Affiliation:
Diponegoro University, Semarang
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Extract

To write a comparative study on so broad a scale as colonial exploitation systems in two such very different countries as Java and India would be an enormous task. A more practical approach would be to select a single aspect of the Dutch system on Java for study, and compare this same feature in the context of the British colony. And, conversely, to isolate a particular facet of British practice in India and compare it to Dutch usage on Java, asking.how the systems worked or did not work as they did over a given span of time.

Type
Articles
Information
Itinerario , Volume 11 , Issue 1: India and Indonesia from the 1830s to 1914: The Heyday of Colonial Rule , March 1987 , pp. 61 - 82
Copyright
Copyright © Research Institute for History, Leiden University 1987

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References

Notes

1 Furnivall, J. S., ‘Administratio n in Burma and Java. Some Points of Similarity and Contrast’ in: VergaderingIndisch Genootschap, 7 December 1934 ('s-Gravenhage 1939) 353–354Google Scholar.

2 Furnivall as cited by Bastin, John, The Native Policy of Sir Starnford Raffles in Java and Sumatra. An Economic Interpretation (Oxford 1957) xi–xiiGoogle Scholar.

3 Ibidem, 10.

4 For comparative purpose the terms Java and India posit geographical and socio-economical unities. I am fully aware of the many differences between regions or states.

5 This traditional feudal relationship is in fact the obedient mentality of the Javanese lower class towards their ruler or superior. It is based on a feudal structure where the ruler or superior class has the right to extract products and labour by way of controlling lands and people. See Burger, D. H., De Ontsluiting van Java's Binnenland voor het Wereld Verkeer (Wageningen 1939) 5–7;Google ScholarBurger, D. H., Sociologisch-Economische Geschiedenis van Indonesia I. Indonesia voorr de 20e Eeuw (Wageningen/Amsterdam/Leiden 1975) 48–50Google Scholar.

6 Ibidem, 25; Wertheim, W. F., ‘The Sociological Approach’ in: , Soedjatmoko et al. eds., An Introduction to Indonesian Historiography (Ithaca 1968) 344–358Google Scholar.

7 Studies on Javanese villages in the nineteenth century are found in many sources, e.g. Burger, , Ontsluiting, 48–49;Google ScholarDay, Clive, The Policy and Administration of the Dutch in Java (New York/London 1904) 26–35, 302-320;Google ScholarHolleman, J. F. ed., Van Vollenhovenon Indonesian Adatlaw. Selections from Hel Adatrecht van Nederlandsch-Indië (The Hague 1981);Google ScholarTjondronegoro, Sediono M.P. and Wiradi, Gunawan eds., Dua Abad Penguasaan Tanah. Pola Penguasaan Tanah dari Masa ke Masa (Jakarta 1984);Google Scholar L. W. C. Van den Berg, Hel Inlandsche Gemeentewezen op Java en Madoera (reprint from Bijdragen, 6th Sequence, Vol. VIII. 's-Gravenhage 1901); Valck, , ‘Gegevens over Kedoe’, Adatrechtbundel XIV (1917) 111–113;Google Scholar Raffles Collections, Reel 10, 12, ANRI; J.A.B. Wiselius, ‘Onderzoek naar de Omvang van de Heeren- en Dessadiensten i n de Residentie Kedoe’, Mailrapport 1888 no. 54, Ministerie van Kolonien (MK), Algemeen Rijks Archief (ARA), The Hague.

8 Valck, , ‘Gegevens over Kedoe’, 111–113;Google Scholar G. P. Rouffaer, ‘Vorstenlanden’, reprint from Adal-rechtbundel XXXIV (1931) 233-379 (new pagination 1 -146); Bergsma, W. E., Eindresumé van hel […] Onderzoek naar de Rechlen van den Inlander op den Grond op Java en Madoera III (Batavia 1896) Bijlage A, 3-11Google Scholar.

9 The meaning of landownership in the traditional context of rural society is that land can beheld for life, bequeathed to descendants, and not be taken away by authorities, except in the public interest. But obligations are owed to the village and the state. See Residentie Kadoe. Afdeeling Statistiek/Algemeen Secretarie Batavia (Batavia 1871) 127–147Google Scholar.

10 Ibidem.

11 The concept of the king's right as sole ownership of all lands derives from the late feudalistic Javanese kingdoms where the king imposed high taxation and parcelled out lungguh so that peasants were in the position of mere tenants. This concept is highly supported by colonial authorities. Originally the king had full right only in his own norowito (crown lands), which provided for his own living. But he had the right to levy taxes and could lend this right to others. He could not take land without compensation. See Vollenhoven, C. van, De Indonesier en Zijn Grond. Een Eeuw Onrechl (Leiden 1932) especially Chapter IGoogle Scholar ; for earlier concepts of the king's right on land seeJ.G. de Casparis, ‘Evolution of the Socio-Economic Status of the East Javanese village and its inhabitants. C. AD. 900-1400’ (paper given at the Fourth Indonesian-Dutch History Conference, Yogyakarta 1983).

12 Rouffaer, , ‘Vorstenlanden’, 44–90;Google ScholarValck, , ‘Gegevens over Kedoe’, 111–113Google Scholar.

13 Bergsma, , Eindresumé II, 142–143Google Scholar.

14 Blusse, Leonard, ‘Labour Takes Root. Mobilization and Immobilization of Javanese Rural Society Under the Cultivation System’, Itinerario 8, 1 (1984) 85–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Raffles, Thomas Stamford, History of Java I (London 1817) 164–172Google Scholar.

16 Burger, , Sociologisch-Economische Geschiedenis I, 48–53Google Scholar.

17 Baden-Powell, B. H., Land-Systems of British India I (London/Oxford 1892) 144–154;Google ScholarBhalia, B. M., ‘Desintegration of Village Communities in India’ in: Ganguli, B. N. ed., Readings in Economic History of India (London 1964) 90–93Google Scholar.

18 For example in Panjab, see Baden-Powell, , Land-Systems I, 168–170Google Scholar.

19 Ibidem, 186-190, 257-260; Kumar, Dharma, Land and Caste in South India. Agricultural Labour in the Madras Presidency During the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge 1965) 10–12Google Scholar.

20 Baden-Powell, , Land-Systems I, 186–188, 189-190,507-509,524-527,534-535Google Scholar.

21 Ibidem, 168-170.

22 Ibidem, 221-222.

23 Moreland, W. H., The Agrarian System of Moslem India (Delhi 1968) 82–83, 86Google Scholar.

24 Prakash, Ishwar, ‘Organization of Industrial Production in Urban Centers in India’ in: , Ganguli ed., Readings in Economic History, 44–49Google Scholar.

25 Ghose, Benoy, ‘The Economic Character of the Urban Middle Class in 19th Century Bengal’ in: , Ganguli ed., Readings in Economic History, 137–138Google Scholar.

26 Alavi, Mahza, ‘India. The Transition of Colonial Capitalism’ in: Alavi, Hamza et al., Capitalism and Colonial Production (London/Canberra 1982) 53–58; on the surviving textile industry see J. Krishnamurty, ‘Handicrafts in India and Indonesia in the Nineteenth Century: Some Tentative Observations’ (in this volume)Google Scholar.

27 Verberne, L. G. J., Het Sociale en Economische Motief in de Bataafse Tijd (Tilburg 1947) 8–11Google Scholar ; further see Brugmans, I. J., Paardenkracht en Mensenmacht. Sociaal-Economische Geschiedenis van Nederlahd 1795-1940 (Den Haag 1983 (1960)) especially Chapter IGoogle Scholar.

28 Verberne, , Sociale en Economische Motief, 5–7Google Scholar.

29 Day, , Policy and Administration, 3. Baud cited by Fasseur, C., Kultuurstehel en Koloniale Baten (Leiden 1975) 1Google Scholar.

30 Verberne, , Sociale en Economische Motief, 19–22Google Scholar.

31 Chose, Kamal Khumar, Agricultural Labourers in India. A Study of their Growth and Economic Condition (Calcutta 1969) 6–7Google Scholar.

32 Wilkinson, Richard, Poverty and Progress (London 1973) 112–137Google Scholar.

33 Ruthnaswamy, M., Some Influences that made the British Administrative System in India (London n.d. [1939]) 228–230Google Scholar.

34 Furnivall, , ‘Administration in Burma and Java’, 346, 354;Google ScholarKumar, , Land and Caste in South India, 64–76Google Scholar.

35 The term diensten in this context consists of several kinds of compulsory labour placed into 4 categories: (1) heerendienslen, public works and guard duties; (2) kultuurdiensten, plantation works; (3) pancendiensten, personal service for the native heads and officials; (4) desadiensten, duties on behalf of the desa and the headman.

36 Bergsma, Eindresumé II; Fokkens, F., Eindresumé van het […] Onderzoek naar de Verplichte Diensten der Inlandsche Bevolkingopjava en Madoera I (Bandoeng 1901–1902) 3–13Google Scholar.

37 Literature on feudalistic society in many countries can be found in e.g. Coulborn, Rushton, Feudalism in History (Princeton 1956);Google ScholarBloch, Marc, Feudal Society, 2 vols. (Chicago 1971);Google ScholarBlum, Jerome, The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe (Princeton 1978)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 Day, , Policy and Administration, 65–66Google Scholar.

39 Klein, J. W., Het Preanger Stelsel (1677-1871) en Zijn Nawerking (Delft 1931);Google ScholarBurger, , Sociolo-gisch-Economische Geschiedenis I, 53–54Google Scholar.

40 Daendels Collections, 165, 166, ARA.

41 Day, , Policy and Administration, 155–160Google Scholar.

42 Only Residenlie Batavia, Buitenzorg, the Principalities (Vorstenlanden) and private lands were excluded from the Cultivation System. See Fasseur, , Kultuurstehel, 16–18Google Scholar.

43 Koloniaal Verslag 1852.

44 The many kinds of works and duties carried out by compulsory labour are found in all the Cultuur Verslagen appearing in mid 1850s.

45 KoloniaaltVerslag 1866.

46 Exh. 17 August 1852 no. 298 Geheim, MK ARA.

47 Exh. 3 Nov. 1852 no. 395 Geheim, MK ARA.

48 About 4 months since November, rainy season for planting rice, the number is reduced to 800 daily. See Besluit 19th July 1833 no. 3, MK ARA; Vitalis report 1835 in Baud Collection 459, MK ARA; Deventer, J. S. Z. S. van, Bijdragen tot de Kennis van het Landelijh Stelsel op Java (Zaltbommel 1866–1867) 592Google Scholar.

49 Besluit 10 Sept. 1849 no. 8 in Baud 891, MK ARA.

50 Ibidem.

51 Only the lowest government service such as messenger has n o pancen. See report of the Inspector of Agriculture, 10 April 1856 no. 4, Archief Cultures 1394, ANRI; ‘Register Heerendiensten’ in Residentie Archief, Kedu 1128, ANRI. See also Wiselius, Mailrapport 1888 no. 54, especially Chapter I.

52 Report of Resident Valck, 1827, Residentie Archief, Kedu 11, ANRI; also Archief Cultures 1394, ANRI; Pieren, A. C. N., De Diensten aan de Hoofden op Java en Madoera (Leiden 1884) 3Google Scholar.

53 Bosch, J. van den, ‘Hoe Men met den Javaan Moet Omgaan’ in: Fasseur, C. ed., Geld en Geweten (Den Haag 1980) 53–55,57-58Google Scholar.

54 In 1832 the government issued a circular asking native officials whether they would prefer to have part of their salary in land. The Kedu officials formally refused salary land, but owing to their insufficient salaries, silently kept some of the lands for themselves. See PV 1856, 1858, 1859, Kedu 1, ANRI; also Verbaal, 9 Nov. 1867 N (10) Z (11), MK ARA; Residentie Kadoe, 6i, m.

55 In general cacah means a peasant householder who with his landholding is liable to taxation and labour service to the king. See Rouffaer, ‘Vorstenlanden’, 71-72; Raffles Collections, Reel 12, ANRI..

56 Fasseur, , Kultuurstelsel, 36–39Google Scholar.

57 These abuses and corruptions of native officials in Kedu are found in many reports, e.g. PV 1859, 1864, 1865, 1878, ANRI.

58 Residentie Kadoe, 42-43,44-45.

59 Residentie Archief, Kedu 1128, ANRI.

60 Besluit lOSept. 1849, no. 8, MK ARA.

61 Koloniaal Verslag 1869-1870, 116.

62 These maximum figures were considered common during the heyday of the Cultivation System. Yet the working hours were not always the same. They ranged from 4 to 10 hours a day or night, excepting heavy fortress works or timber works, which covered 12 hours a day. See many reports e.g. Wiselius, Mailrapport 1888 no. 54, MK ARA, Staten der Heeren en Dessadiensten; Cultuur Verslag 1854; Coffee Reports, Archief Cultures 304, ANRI; De Vrieze, Verbaal 24 April 1862 no. 40, MK ARA; Residentie Kadoe, 32-35; Residentie Archief, Kedu 1128, ANRI.

63 In 1866 landless cultivators in Menoreh District comprised 2096 of the agricultural population, while in Prapag District only 6%. See Residentie Archief, Kedu 1068, ANRI.

64 For 1887 calculation see Wiselius, Mailrapport 1888 no. 54, MK ARA, especially District report Menoreh.

65 Besluit 10 Sept. 1849no. 8, Baud 891; Residentie Kadoe, 81-82.

66 Residentie Archief, Kedu 1068, ANRI.

67 Wiselius, Mailrapport 1888 no. 54, MK ARA, Chapter I, Table A.

68 Ibidem, Chapter III.

69 White, Benjamin, ‘Demand for Labour and Population Growth in Colonial Java’, Human Ecology 1, 3 (1973) 217–236; alsoCrossRefGoogle ScholarAlexander, Paul, Labour Expropriation and Fertility: Population Growth in 19th Century Java (Sydney 1982)Google Scholar.

70 Calculated from the population statistics of Kedu between 1830-1870, see Residentie Kadoe, 81-82; Koloniaal Verslag 1871.

71 Day, , Policy and Administration, 168–169Google Scholar.

72 Bastin, John, Raffles Ideas on the Land Rent System in Java ('s-Grzvenhage 1954) 16–18Google Scholar.

73 This regulation of detailed settlement (individual landrent) was made after a transition period of ‘leasing’ cultivated lands in the village to the village head in order to secure land revenue. Ibidem, 155-162, 177-179; for detailed Revenue Instructions see Deventer, , Bijdragen tot de Kermis I, 68–86, 102-118Google Scholar.

74 Bastin, , Raffles Ideas on Land Rent System, 177–179;Google ScholarBastin, , Native Policy of Raffles, 54–56Google Scholar.

75 Day, , Policy and Administration, 211–222Google Scholar.

76 Baden-Powell, , Land-Systems I, 232Google Scholar.

77 Wiselius, Mailrapport 1888 no. 54, MK ARA, Chapter VII, Part II.

78 Ibidem; see also Gupta, Sulekh Chandra, ‘The Village Community and its Disintegration in Uttar Pradesh in the Early Nineteenth Century’ in; , Ganguli ed., Readings in Economic History, 106–107Google Scholar.

79 ‘Report in Irrigation Works in India. By Col. R. Strachey, Inspector General of Irrigation Works’, Enclosure to India Public Works Letter, no. 57, 8th May, 1869, Blue Book (389) 47-50.

80 Ibidem, 49-50; Dutt, Romesh, The Economic History of India. Under Early British Rule II (London 1906) 167–174Google Scholar.

81 Residentie Kadoe, 38.

82 Baden-Powell, , Land-Systems I, 682–683Google Scholar.

83 Buchanan, Francis, An Account of the District of Shahabad in 1809-1810. Oldham, C.E.A.W. ed. (Patna 1934) 441–442Google Scholar.

84 Deventer, , BijdragentotdeKermis I, 186–187; Residentie Kadoe, 149-150Google Scholar.

85 Wiselius, Mailrapport 1888 no. 54, MK ARA, Chapter VII, Part II.

86 Ibidem.

87 Burger, , Sociologisch-Economische Geschiedenis I, 126–127;Google ScholarPieren, , Diensten aan de Hoofden, 10–11Google Scholar.

88 ‘Report on the Cultivation of Indigo’. Letter from the India Office in London. April 8th, 1861, Bluebook, 1-4.

89 Kumar, , Land and Caste in South India, 41, 64-67;Google ScholarMayer, P., ‘South India, North India: The Capitalist Transformation of two Provincial Districts’ in: , Alavi et al., Capitalism and Colonial Production, 102Google Scholar.

90 Alavi, , ‘India. The Transition of Colonial Capitalism’, 58Google Scholar ; Prakash, Ishwar ‘Organization of Industrial Production’, 44–52Google Scholar.

91 Gupta, , ‘Village Community’, 112–113;Google ScholarGhose, , Agricultural Labourers, 10–11;Google ScholarBaden-Powell, , Land-Systems I, 281–284Google Scholar.

92 Ibidem; Ghose, , Agricultural Labourers, 92–93Google Scholar.

93 Extracted from Kumar, , Land and Caste in South India, 92–93Google Scholar.

94 Ibidem, 32-34,35-36.