Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-gvh9x Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-18T03:31:51.214Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

‘The situation over there really bothers me’: Ronald Reagan and the Northern Ireland conflict

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 July 2017

James Cooper
James Cooper*
Affiliation:
Oxford Brookes University
*
*Department of History, Philosophy and Religion, Oxford Brookes University, jamescooper@brookes.ac.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The relationship between the Reagan administration and the Northern Ireland conflict is a neglected area of transatlantic history. This article addresses the extent of Ronald Reagan’s interest in the Northern Irish conflict and the manner in which other protagonists sought to secure or prevent his involvement. It will examine the president’s approach in the context of different views within his administration, the State Department’s wish to maintain American neutrality on the issue of Northern Ireland, and the desire of leading Irish-American politicians for the American government to be much more interventionist. These debates coincided with significant developments in Northern Ireland. Therefore, Reagan’s contribution to the Anglo–Irish process encapsulates a variety of issues: the Troubles in Northern Ireland during the 1980s, the 1985 Anglo–Irish Agreement and the internationalisation of the conflict before the election of President Bill Clinton in 1993.

Type
Research Article
Information
Irish Historical Studies , Volume 41 , Issue 159 , May 2017 , pp. 97 - 116
Copyright
© Irish Historical Studies Publications Ltd 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Journalistic accounts include: Conor O’Clery, The greening of the White House (Dublin, 1996); idem, Daring diplomacy: Clinton’s secret search for peace in Ireland (Boulder, CO, 1997); Eamonn Mallie and David McKittrick, Endgame in Ireland (London, 2001); idem, The fight for peace: the secret story behind the Irish peace process (London, 1996). Interdisciplinary scholarship on the topic includes: Roger MacGinty and John Darby, Guns and government: the management of the Northern Ireland peace process (New York, 2001); Paul Arthur, Special relationships: Britain, Ireland and the Northern Ireland problem (Belfast, 2000). For an introduction to the Clinton administration’s involvement in Northern Ireland, see, for instance: Paul Dixon, Northern Ireland: the politics of war and peace (Basingstoke, 2008), pp 240–77; John Dumbrell, ‘“Hope and history”: the U.S. and peace in Northern Ireland’ in Michael Cox, Adrian Guelke and Fiona Stephen (eds), A farewell to arms? From long war to long peace in Northern Ireland (Manchester, 2000), pp 214–23. Reagan always spent St Patrick’s Day at the Irish embassy, spoke about Northern Ireland fifteen times, and suggested that he persuaded Thatcher of the merits of the 1985 Anglo–Irish Agreement (Mallie and David, The fight for peace, p. 279). Likewise, Garret FitzGerald attributed much credit to Reagan for the Anglo–Irish Agreement in his memoir: All in a life: an autobiography (London, 1991), p. 527. For a full study of the approach of U.S. presidents to Northern Ireland, see the author’s: The politics of diplomacy: U.S. presidents and the Northern Ireland conflict (Edinburgh, 2017).

2 See, for instance: Seán Cronin, Washington’s Irish policy, 1916–1986 (Dublin, 1987); Andrew J. Wilson, Irish America and the Ulster conflict, 1968–1995 (Belfast, 1995); Ray O’Hanlon, The new Irish Americans (Niwot, CO, 1998); Joseph E. Thompson, American policy and Northern Ireland: a saga of peacebuilding (London, 2001). Useful and newly released primary sources of interest to scholars of American influence on Northern Ireland include material at the Bill Clinton Presidential Library (http://clinton.presidentiallibraries.us/items/browse?tag=Northern+Ireland) (25 Sept. 2016). The Edward M. Kennedy Oral Histories at the Miller Center may also be of interest (http://millercenter.org/oralhistory/edward-kennedy) (25 Sept. 2016).

3 For the internationalisation of the Northern Ireland conflict generally, see, for instance: Adrian Guelke, ‘The American connection to the Northern Ireland conflict’ in Irish Studies in International Affairs, i, no. 4 (1984), pp 27–39; idem, ‘The United States, Irish Americans and the Northern Ireland peace process’ in International Affairs, lxxii, no. 3 (July 1996), pp 521–36; James M. McCormick, ‘Introduction’, in idem (ed.), The domestic sources of American foreign policy (Lanham, MD, 2012), pp 1–18; idem, ‘Ethnic interest groups in American Foreign policy’ in idem (ed.), Domestic sources, pp 67–87; David Owen, ‘The resolution of armed conflict: internationalization and its lessons, particularly in Northern Ireland’ in Marianne Elliot (ed.), The long road to peace in Northern Ireland (Liverpool, 2007), pp 25–43.

4 See: Richard Aldous, Reagan and Thatcher: the difficult relationship (London, 2012); James Cooper, Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan: a very political special relationship (Basingstoke, 2012); Sally-Ann Treharne, Reagan and Thatcher’s special relationship: Latin America and Anglo–American relations (Edinburgh, 2015).

5 The connection between domestic politics and foreign policy in the United States is an established phenomenon in the historiography. See, for instance: Julian Zelizer, Arsenals of democracy: the politics of national security – from World War II to the war on terrorism (New York, 2010); Thomas Alan Schwartz, ‘“Henry, … winning an election is terribly important”: partisan politics in the history of U.S. foreign relations’ in Diplomatic History, xxxiii, no. 2 (Apr. 2009), pp 173–90; Campbell Craig and Fredrik Logevall, America’s cold war: the politics of insecurity (Cambridge, Mass., 2009); Jussi Hanhimäki, ‘Global visions and parochial politics: the persistent dilemma of the American century’ in Diplomatic History, xxvii, no. 4 (Sept. 2003), pp 423–47. Of particular concern for historians has been the role of ethnic groups in U.S. foreign policy. For general introductions, see, for instance: Alexander DeConde, Ethnicity, race, and American foreign policy (Boston, Mass., 1992); Tony Smith, Foreign attachments: the power of ethnic groups in the making of American foreign policy (Cambridge, Mass., 2000). Obvious examples are the Israeli and Chinese lobbies. See: Peter H. Koehn and Xiao-huang Yin (eds), The expanding roles of Chinese Americans in U.S. –China relations: transnational networks and Trans-Pacific interactions (Armonk, NY, 2002); John J. Mearsheimer, The Israel lobby and US foreign policy (London, 2008).

6 Interview with Mr Edwin Meese, Washington, D.C. (19 Nov. 2012). (Meese was Reagan’s chief-of-staff when he was governor of California and served as special counselor to the president and the U.S. attorney general in the Reagan administration.) For excellent introductions to oral history and the use of ‘memory’, see, for instance: Paul Thompson, The voice of the past: oral history (Oxford, 2000); Geoffrey Cubitt, History and memory (Manchester, 2007).

7 For an introduction to the Troubles, see: Paul Bew, Ireland: the politics of enmity, 1789–2006 (Oxford, 2007), pp 486–555.

8 See, for instance: Wilson, Irish America.

9 See, for instance: Graeme S. Mount, 895 days that changed the world: the presidency of Gerald R. Ford (London, 2006), pp 8–11.

10 Lou Cannon, President Reagan: the role of a lifetime (New York, 2000), pp 461–2.

11 Civil servant at the Department of Foreign Affairs (identity unclear) to N. S. Ó Nualláin, Roinn an Taoisigh, 22 Bealtaine 1972 (N.A.I., Office of Secretary to the President 2003/18/62). (I am grateful to the National Archives of Ireland, in particular the director, for the use of this, and similar, material.)

12 NORAID was initially established in 1970 as a means to help displaced Catholic families after the outbreak of the Troubles. See: Wilson, Irish America, p. 43.

13 John Dumbrell, A special relationship: Anglo–American relations from the cold war to Iraq (Basingstoke, 2006), p. 247.

14 Ibid.

15 Arthur, Special relationships, p. 138.

16 Dumbrell, A special relationship, pp 247–8.

17 Dixon, Northern Ireland, p. 167.

18 The Guardian, 26 Nov. 1985.

19 Dumbrell, A special relationship, pp 247–8.

20 Dixon, Northern Ireland, p. 171.

21 Thompson, American policy, pp 79–80.

22 Wilson, Irish America, pp 159–60.

23 Margaret Thatcher plenary meeting with President Jimmy Carter, Monday 17 Dec. 1979, The Margaret Thatcher Foundation website (http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/112136) (25 Oct. 2013) (hereafter cited by URL).

24 Thompson, American policy, pp 106–7.

25 Republican Party platforms, ‘Republican Party platform of 1980’, 15 July 1980. Available at Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project (http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25844) (5 Dec. 2014) (hereafter cited by URL).

26 Report on Republican convention, ‘Ireland’, 21 July 1980 (N.A.I., D/Foreign Affairs, 2012/59/1603).

27 Brief, provenance unknown, ‘President Reagan and Northern Ireland’ (N.A.I., D/Foreign Affairs, 2012/59/1603).

28 See: James Cooper, ‘“I must brief you on the mistakes”: when Ronald Reagan met Margaret Thatcher, 25–28 February, 1981’ in Journal of Policy History, xxvi, no. 2 (Apr. 2014), pp 274–97.

29 Steering brief by Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 19 Feb. 1981, prime minister’s visit to the United States, 25–28 Feb. (T.N.A., Visit by Margaret Thatcher, prime minister of the U.K., to the U.S.A., Feb. 1981: briefs, FCO 82/1110).

30 Northern Ireland (if raised), brief by the Northern Ireland Office, 19 February 1981 (T.N.A., FCO 82/1110).

31 Ibid.

32 Memorandum, Alexander Haig to Ronald Reagan, ‘Visit of Prime Minister Thatcher’, Briefing book re. visit of British Prime Minister Thatcher, 25–28 Feb. 1981 (Ronald Reagan Presidential Library [hereafter Reagan Library], binder 1/2, box 91434 RAC 1, Executive Secretariat, N.S.C.: V.I.P. visits).

33 Ibid.

34 See: ‘No.10 record of conversation (MT-US Senate Members)’, 26 Feb. 1981 (http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/127292) (11 Aug. 2014); ‘No.10 note of conversation (Reagan–Thatcher meeting)’, 26 Feb. 1981 (http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/113943) (11 Aug. 2014).

35 Globe and Mail [Canada], 18 Mar. 1981.

36 Ronald Reagan, ‘Statement on St. Patrick’s Day’, 17 Mar. 1981 (http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=43547) (31 July 2013).

37 Washington Post, 18 Mar. 1981.

38 Wilson, Irish America, p. 194.

39 Telegram, Ambassador (Wash DC) to Asst Sec. Neligan (HQ), ‘President Reagan and Senator Kennedy’, 2 June 1981 (N.A.I., D/Foreign Affairs, 2012/59/1603).

40 Ibid.

41 Telegram, From Washington to F.C.O., ‘US Foreign Policy’, 13 July 1981 (T.N.A., United States foreign policy; nuclear non-proliferation; part 1, PREM 19/1152, U.S.A.).

42 Ibid.

43 Memorandum, Richard V. Allen to President Reagan, ‘Britain Drifts’, 31 July 1981 (http://www.margaretthatcher.org/archive/displaydocument.asp?docid=110522) (13 Aug. 2012).

44 Ibid. The Labour Party disagreed with much of the Reagan administration’s foreign policy and inherently opposed the philosophy driving its domestic policy. Similarly, the Reagan administration viewed Labour’s policy of unilateral nuclear disarmament as potentially disastrous for the western alliance. This was to such an extent that Neil Kinnock (Foot’s successor as Labour Party leader) received a difficult reception in a visit prior to the 1987 U.K. general election. See: Geoffrey Smith, Reagan and Thatcher (London, 1990), p. 228.

45 Telegram, M. Burke (HQ) to Ambassador London, ‘Following for your information is the text of a letter handed over to President Reagan on 14 July, 1981’, 15 July 1981 (N.A.I., D/Foreign Affairs, 2012/59/1603).

46 Telegram, Ambassador (Washington DC) to Asst Sec. Neligan (HQ), ‘Representations to President,’ 15 July 1981 (N.A.I., D/Foreign Affairs, 2012/59/1603).

47 Ibid.

48 Ronald Reagan to Garret FitzGerald, 23 July 1981 (N.A.I., D/Foreign Affairs, 2012/59/1603).

49 Ibid.

50 U.K.E. Washington to F.C.O., ‘Irish Prime Minister’s Letter to President Reagan’, 30 July 1981 (http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/125275) (11 Aug. 2014).

51 Wilson, Irish America, p. 194.

52 See: Paul Kengor and Patricia Clark Doerner, The judge: William P. Clark, Ronald Reagan’s top hand (San Francisco, 2007).

53 Telegram, Ambassador (Washington) to HQ, ‘Conversation with Deputy Secretary of State William Patrick Clark’, 13 Aug. 1981 (N.A.I., D/Foreign Affairs, 2012/59/1603).

54 Ibid.

55 Interview with John Hume, 29 Sept. 2005 (Miller Center, University of Virginia) (http://millercenter.org/oralhistory/interview/john_hume) (2 Oct. 2015).

56 Telegram, Ambassador (Washington) to Secretary HQ, 25 Nov. 1981 (N.A.I., D/Foreign Affairs, 2012/59/1603).

57 Ronald Reagan, ‘Remarks in New York at the 84th Annual Dinner of the Irish American Historical Society’, 6 Nov. 1981 (http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=43221) (5 Dec. 2014).

58 New York Times, 9 Dec. 1981.

59 J. S. Wall (British embassy, Washington D.C.) to P. K. C. Thomas (Republic of Ireland Department, F.C.O.), ‘President Reagan’s letter to Dr FitzGerald’, 22 Feb. 1982 (T.N.A., CJ 4/3914).

60 Telegram, From Dublin to F.C.O., 7 Dec. 1981 (T.N.A., CJ 4/3914).

61 P. K. C. Thomas (Republic of Ireland Department, F.C.O.) to J. S. Wall (British embassy, Washington D.C.), ‘President Reagan’s letter to Dr FitzGerald’, 1 Feb. 1982 (T.N.A., CJ 4/3914).

62 Ibid.

63 Letter, A. K. C. Wood (A.P.S./lord privy seal) to A. J. Coles (10, Downing Street), ‘Northern Ireland: Mr Clark’s remarks’, 10 Dec. 1981 (T.N.A., United States Involvement in Northern Ireland and visits to the USA by Northern Ireland politicians, CJ 4/3845).

64 Telegram Washington to F.C.O., ‘President Reagan’s National Security Adviser’, 7 Jan. 1982 (T.N.A., CJ 4/3914).

65 Ibid.

66 ‘Attitudes of current U.S. Administration on Northern Ireland’, Mar. 1982 (N.A.I., D/Foreign Affairs, 2012/59/1604).

67 ‘Meeting between the Taoiseach [and] President Reagan, White House, 17 Mar. 1982’ (N.A.I., D/Foreign Affairs, 2012/59/1603).

68 Ibid.

69 R. A. Harrington (Northern Ireland Office) to Patrick Eyers (Republic of Ireland Department, Foreign and Commonwealth Office), ‘Commander Dennis Blair, National Security Council’, 7 June 1982 (T.N.A., CJ 4/3914).

70 ‘Record of a meeting between the Prime Minister and the President of the United States of America on Wednesday 9 June 1982 at 10 Downing Street at 0945’ (T.N.A., Visit to U.K. by President Reagan, June 1982: meetings with prime minister; part 2, PREM 19/943, USA).

71 Wilson, Irish America, pp 240–2.

72 Memorandum of telephone call between Reagan and FitzGerald, 17 Mar. 1983 (Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, Head of State files). Available online in The Reagan files (http://www.thereaganfiles.com/19830517-hos.pdf) (9 Aug. 2015).

73 Ibid.

74 Ibid.

75 Wilson, Irish America, p. 240.

76 Thatcher and Reagan held two meetings: a tête-à-tête with just note-takers and a working lunch, which was attended by Howe, Shultz, Clark, Regan, Louis and other aides from each country. See: ‘Record of a conversation between the prime minister and the president of the United States at the White House at 1137 hours on Thursday, 29 September 1983’ and ‘Record of a conversation at a working lunch given by the president of the United States for the prime minister at the White House at 1240 on Thursday, 29 September 1983’ (T.N.A., Prime Minister’s visit to Washington, Sept. 1983; part 3, PREM 19/1153).

77 Wilson, Irish America, p. 241.

78 ‘Taoiseach’s Meeting with President Reagan, White House, 16th March, 1984’ (N.A.I., D/Taoiseach, 2014/105/824).

79 Ibid.

80 Taoiseach’s visit to America, ‘Meeting with Vice-President Bush, 14 March, 1984’ (N.A.I., D/Taoiseach, 2014/105/824).

81 Ibid.

82 Cable, Washington to HQ, ‘Meeting between Taoiseach, Dr Garret FitzGerald and U.S. Secretary of State George Shultz: 16th March 1984, Washington DC’ (N.A.I., D/Taoiseach, 2014/105/824).

83 The Reagan diaries, ed. Douglas Brinkley (New York, 2007), p. 226, entry for 16–18 Mar. 1984.

84 See, for instance: Cannon, President Reagan, pp 424–87.

85 Ibid, p. 406.

86 ‘Address Before a Joint Session of the Irish National Parliament

June 4, 1984’, Reagan Library. Available online in The public papers of Ronald W. Reagan (http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1984/60484a.htm) (3 Sept. 2013) (hereafter cited by URL.)

87 Ibid.

88 Memorandum for the president from Robert C. McFarlane on ‘Your European Trip: Bilateral Aspects’, 18 May 1984 (Reagan Library, ‘The President’s Trip to Europe: Ireland, UK and Normandy 1 of 6’, RAC box 20, 06/01/1984 – 06/10/1984 binder, Office of Coordination, N.S.C.: records, box 10).

89 Memorandum, George P. Shultz to the president on ‘Your Trip to Ireland: Setting and Issues’, 14 May 1984 (Reagan Library, ‘The President’s Trip to Europe: Ireland, UK and Normandy 1 of 6’, RAC box 20, 06/01/1984 – 06/10/1984 binder, Office of Coordination, N.S.C.: records, box 10).

90 ‘Address of An Taoiseach, Dr Garret FitzGerald T.D. at Dinner in Honour of President Ronald Reagan, Dublin Castle, 3 June, 1984’ (N.A.I., D/Taoiseach, 2014/105/487).

91 ‘Taoiseach’s Meeting with President Reagan, 4th June, 1984’ (N.A.I., D/Taoiseach, 2014/105/824).

92 Ibid.

93 Memorandum, George P. Shultz to the president on ‘Your Trip to Ireland: Setting and Issues’, 14 May 1984.

94 Richard Vinen, Thatcher’s Britain: the politics and social upheaval of the 1980s (London, 2009), p. 216.

95 See: Margaret Thatcher, Press conference following Anglo-Irish summit, 19 Nov. 1984 (http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/105790) (31 July 2013).

96 Interview with Edward M. Kennedy, 20 Mar. 2006 (Miller Center, University of Virginia) (http://millercenter.org/oralhistory/interview/edward_m_kennedy_3-20-2006) (2 Oct. 2015).

97 Thomas P. O’Neill to Ronald Reagan, 13 Dec. 1984 (Reagan Library, 8434471, Congressional correspondence by member L-Z, box 90520, Chris Lehman, files 4/18 [0]).

98 Ibid.

99 Thomas P. O’Neill, Jr. et al. to Ronald Reagan, 20 Dec. 1984 (Reagan Library, Thatcher visit – Dec 84 [3], box 90902, European and Soviet Affairs Directorate, N.S.C.: records).

100 Mario Biaggi et al. to Ronald Reagan, 17 Dec. 1984 (Reagan Library, 834470, Congressional correspondence by member L–Z, box 90520, Chris Lehman, files 4/18 [0]).

101 Memorandum, George P. Shultz to Ronald Reagan, 20 Dec. 1984, ‘Your meeting with Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, December 22, 1984’ (Reagan Library, United Kingdom: prime minister official visit, December 22, 1984 2/3, box 91440 RAC 6, Executive Secretariat, N.S.C.: V.I.P. visits).

102 Memorandum of conversation, meeting with British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, 22 Dec. 1984, Camp David, 10:40 a.m.–11:10 a.m., private meeting, Aspen Lodge, 11:30 a.m. – 1:25 p.m., expanded meeting and lunch, Laurel Lodge, 22 Dec. 1984 (Reagan Library, Thatcher Visit, Dec 84 [1], Box 90902, European and Soviet Affairs Directorate, N.S.C.: records).

103 Ibid.

104 Ronald Reagan to Thomas P. O’Neill, 9 Jan. 1985 (Reagan Library, Congressional correspondence by member L–Z, Box 90520, Chris Lehman files 4/18 [0], box 3).

105 Mallie and McKittrick, The fight for peace, p. 279.

106 FitzGerald, All in a life, p. 527.

107 Memorandum of conversation, meeting with British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, Camp David, 22 Dec. 1984 (Reagan Library, Thatcher visit, Dec 84 1, box 90902, European and Soviet Affairs Directorate, N.S.C.: records).

108 Margaret Thatcher, speech to joint Houses of Congress, 20 Feb. 1985 (http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/105968) (1 Aug. 2013).

109 Memorandum, George P. Shultz to Ronald Reagan, 15 Feb. 1985, ‘Your meeting with Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, February 20, 1985’ (Reagan Library, United Kingdom: Prime Minister Thatcher official visit, 02/20/1985 1 of 2, box 91440, RAC box 6, Executive Secretariat, N.S.C.: V.I.P. visits).

110 FitzGerald, All in a life, p. 535.

111 Vinen, Thatcher’s Britain, p. 217. For the Anglo–Irish Agreement, see, for instance: Thomas Hennessey, The Northern Ireland peace process: ending the Troubles? (Dublin, 2000), pp 19–66; Feargal Cochrane, Unionist politics and the politics of unionism since the Anglo–Irish Agreement (Cork, 1997).

112 Memorandum, Robert C. McFarlane/M. B. Oglesby, Jr. to President Reagan, ‘Meeting with Tip O’Neill & Irish & UK Ambassadors 11/15/85’, 15 Nov. 1985 (Reagan Library, Coordination Office, National Security Council: records, box 10). According to FitzGerald, the emissaries were Donlon for the Irish and Robert Armstrong, secretary of the cabinet, for the U.K. (FitzGerald, All in life, p. 542).

113 Memorandum, Robert C. McFarlane/M. B. Oglesby, Jr. to President Reagan, ‘Meeting with Tip O’Neill & Irish & UK Ambassadors 11/15/85’, 15 Nov. 1985.

114 Ronald Reagan, ‘Statement on the United Kingdom–Ireland Agreement Concerning Northern Ireland, November 15, 1985’ (http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1985/111585a.htm) (1 Aug. 2013).

115 The Reagan diaries, ed. Brinkley, p. 368, entry for 15 Nov. 1985.

116 Interview with Edward M. Kennedy, 27 Feb. 2006.

117 Ronald Reagan, ‘Remarks at the Annual Dinner of the Conservative Political Action Conference, Friday 1 March, 1985’ (http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/search/speeches/speech_srch.html) (13 Nov. 2013).

118 See, for instance: Michael Schaller, Ronald Reagan (Oxford, 2011), pp 73–80.

119 Interview with Edward M. Kennedy (27 Feb. 2006).

120 Ibid.

121 See: Wilson, Irish America, pp 254–6.

122 Ronald Reagan, An American life (London, 1990), p. 373. I am grateful to Liam Chambers and the anonymous readers of this article for their insightful and constructive comments. Likewise, my thanks must go to Thomas Robb for his comments on an earlier draft of this piece of work. I would also like to thank the archivists at the British and Irish national archives, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, and the various online repositories for their assistance. Finally, I am grateful to Mr Edwin Meese for our research interview in 2012.