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The Metal Trade of Ugarit and the Problem of Transportation of Commercial Goods

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 August 2014

M. Heltzer
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Extract

Archaeological evidence from Ugarit shows that a lot of goods were imported to this kingdom from Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Cyprus, the Aegean, the Syrian coast and inland, Egypt and other countries, but only the written sources can give us a clear picture of the amounts of goods, the trade-routes, methods of transportation, the structure of prices etc.

We shall not enter here into a discussion concerning all the goods and their prices known to us from the alphabetic-Ugaritic and Akkadian texts from Ugarit; we shall deal here with only one of the principal goods, the metals, and study the question of transportation of commercial goods in this kingdom in the XIV–XIII centuries B.C. Unfortunately we do not yet know the prices of grain in Ugarit, and therefore this basic product is not included in the study of prices.

Type
Research Article
Information
IRAQ , Volume 39 , Issue 2 , Autumn 1977 , pp. 203 - 211
Copyright
Copyright © The British Institute for the Study of Iraq 1977

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References

Abbreviations Cross—D. Cross, Movable Property in the Nuzi Documents (New Haven, 1937); CTA—A. Herdner, Corpus des tablettes en cuniiformes alphabétiques dtcouvertes a Ras-Shamra—Ugarit de 1929 à 1939, I et II (Paris, 1963); DA—Dialoghi di Archeologia; Forbes, IX—Forbes, Studies in Ancient Technology IX, (1964); Garelli—Garelli P., Les Assyriens en Cappadoce (Paris, 1963); ILR—Israel Law Review; IM—Istanbuler Mitteilungen; IOS—Israel Oriental Series; JM—Journal of Metals; Klengel, GS—H. Klengel, Geschichte Syriens im 2. Jahrtausend v.u.*i, I—III (Berlin, 1965—70); Liverani, SU—M. Liverani, Storia di Ugarit nell'eta degli archivi politici (Roma, 1962) ; Meissner—B. Meissner, Warenpreise in Babylonien (Berlin, 1936); OA—Oriens Antiquus; PS—Palestinikij Sbornik (Russian); P*—Prähistorische *eitschrift; Steele—F. R. Steele, Nuzi Real Estate Transactions (Philadelphia, 1943); U V—Ugaritica, V, Paris, (1968) ; U VI—Ugaritica, VI, Paris, (1969); Veenhof—K. R. Veenhof, Aspects of Old Assyrian Trade and its Terminology (Leiden, 197a); VDI—Vestnik Drevney Istori'i—Moscow.

1 We know more than a hundred of commercial goods in Ugarit, and this question is discussed in a monograph, which has to be published elsewhere; Cf. also Heltzer, M., “The Goods and Prices in Ugaritic Trade,” PS 19 (1969), 7–31Google Scholar. (Russian, partly out of date).

2 Landsberger, B., “Tin and Lead; The Adventures of Two Vocables,” JNES 24 (1965), 295–296Google Scholar; complementary evidence to B. Landsberger's argumentation: annaku peṣû (white), known formerly only from late Assyrian literary texts which showed that it is tin, appears now in the Akkadian tablet PRU VI, 155, 6Google Scholar (RS.19.07) from Ugarit, thus attesting annaku peṣû meš in the XIV–XIII century B.C.

3 Zaccagnini, C., “Note sulla terminologia metallurgica di Ugarit,” OA 9 (1970), 317 ffGoogle Scholar.—where the author proves definitively that the term brr has always the meaning “tin” in Ugaritic.

4 CTA, 141, 11Google Scholar; PRU II, 130Google Scholar (UT.1130), 2, 15; PRU V, 101Google Scholar (UT.2101), 4–5; PRU VI, 155Google Scholar (RS.19.07); U V, 12 (RS.17.150), 6, 18, 30, 32, 45. 47–48; 38 (RS.20.16), 24.

5 kbd— “totally” “in all”; cf. Liverani, M., “KBD nei testi amministrativi ugaritici,” UF 2 (1970), 89–108 (esp. p. 107)Google Scholar, kbd “consistenza (numerica) complessiva”.

6 erû (URUDU) generally “copper” in the II millennium B.C., and siparru (ZABAR) generally “bronze”; Zaccagnini, C., “La Terminologia accadica del rame e del bronzo nel I millenio,” OA 8–10 (1971), 123–144, esp. p. 143Google Scholar.

7 PRU 11, 130, 1 (UT.1130)Google Scholar; III, 16. 110,7; 15.108; PRU V, 101, 1–2, 4–5Google Scholar; VI, 155 (RS.19.07) 1, 6; 162 (RS.19.36), 1; 163 (RS. 19.64), R. 3–4; UV., 38 (RS.20.16) 33; 53(20.15).

8 ḫmšt. alp. ṯlṯ b. ‘šrm. ḫmšt. kbd. ksp.

9 Nougayrol, J., PRU VI, 118–36Google Scholar(?) bilat erû meš; but the autograph shows 34 bilat erû meš 5 [me(?) 63 + x] šiqil kaspi meš (reconstruction according to PRU VI); the figure 63 + x comes from the total of the tablet, (9) 1 lim 63 [ + x] k[aspu](?)meš[??]. So the missing figure had to be no larger than 6; so the number 63 in the total is acceptable for working purposes; the total sum of the other goods gives a worth of 530 shekels of silver; so we can accept only 533 as a maximum in line one. All other texts give only the price or quantity, or one of the elements had to be in the broken part of the tablet.

10 On the Ugaritic weights and measures cf. Parise, N. F., “Per uno studio del sistema ponderale ugaritico,” DA 1 (1970–1971), 3–36Google Scholar; we agree with Parise that the Ugaritic talent had 3,000 shekels, but contrary to his view that the Ugaritic mina consisted of 50 shekels and talent of 60 minas, we should consider the mina to consist of 60 shekels, and the talent of 50 minas; this can be proved by the fine for killing a foreign tamkāru in Ugarit—according to PRU IV, 17.146, 26 and 43, 3 minas had to be paid for one person as compensation, and according to PRU IV, 17.158, after a legal case about killing a foreign tamkāru 3 minas of silver were paid; the Ugaritic shekel weighed 9–9.4 gr. (Parise, pp. 22–23).

11 PRU II, 130, 2Google Scholar; CTA, 141, 11Google Scholar.

12 PRU III, 16, 110, 7Google Scholar; PRU VI, 162, 1Google Scholar; PRU V, 101, 6–7Google Scholar.

13 PRU V, 101, 1–2Google Scholar.

14 PRU II, 130, 1Google Scholar.

15 U V, 38.

16 PRU V, 101, 20.2Google Scholar shekels of gold for 8 shekels of silver =1:4; PRU V, 100, (UT.2100)Google Scholar, (1–2) 12 shekels of gold for 40 silver = 1:3.5; (5–6) 5 shekels of gold for 15 shekels of silver = 1:3; (16–17) 14 shekels of gold for 42 shekels of silver = 1:3; (18) 10 shekels of gold for 40 shekels of silver = 1:4; cf. PRU VI, 6 (RS.17.144)Google Scholar, where gold is mentioned as an exchange medium: cf. also Leemans, W. F., Gold (RlA, III, 522)Google Scholar.

17 Leemans, , Gold (RlA, III, 506)Google Scholar.

18 Cf. PRU III, 16. 189Google Scholar; 16. 205; 16. 250 etc.

19 Heltzer, M., “On the Akkadian Term rêšu in Ugarit,” IOS 4 (1974), 4–11Google Scholar.

20 Zaccagnini, C., OA (1970), 322; 1:200Google Scholar.

21 According to Zaccagnini, p. 322, the ratio of tin:copper was 8:9; cf. Nougayrol, J., U V, p. 120–7:9Google Scholar.

22 Fensham, Ch., “Iron in the Ugaritic Texts,” OA 8 (1969), 209–213Google Scholar; Dietrich, M., Loretz, O., “Der Vertrag zwischen Šuppiluliuma und Niqmaddu,” WO 3 (1966), 227–231Google Scholar. Heltzer, M., “The Organization of Craftsmanship in Ugarit,” PS 13 (1965), 49–60 (Russian)Google Scholar; cf. also PRU II, 103Google Scholar; U V, 38 (RS.20.11); PRU VI, 7 B (RS.17.148)Google Scholar; 6 (RS.17.144) etc.

23 Zaccagnini, C., OA 9 (1970), 315–317Google Scholar; Heltzer, The Organization …

24 Maddin, R. and Muhly, J. D., “Some Notes on the Copper Trade in the Ancient Near East,” JM 26/5 (1974), 24–30Google Scholar; Wheeler, T. S., Maddin, R., Muhly, J. D., “Ingots and the Bronze Age Copper Trade in the Mediterranean. A program report,” Expedition 17/4 (1975), 31–39Google Scholar; Bucholz, H. E., “Keftiubarren und Erzhandel in Zweiten vorchristlichen Jahrtausend,” PZ 37 (1955), 21–25Google Scholar; Forbes, IX, 1969, 71–75Google Scholar.

25 Edzard, D. O., “Die Beziehungen Babyloniens und Ägyptens in der Mittelbabylonischen Zeit und das Gold,” JESHO 3 (1960), 38–55Google Scholar. The conclusions of Edzard have their confirmation in later publications—Leemans, W. F., “Un Texte de l'époque Cassite, RA 60 (1966), 75–76Google Scholar.

26 Cross, p. 34; Steele, p. 34; Edzard, D. O., JESHO 3 (1960), 41–42Google Scholar; Leemans, W. F., Gold (RlA III, 512–513)Google Scholar.

27 The Hittite mina consisted of 40 shekels; and its shekel had to be nearly 1.5 shekels of Ugarit; cf. Parise, N. F., DA 1 (1970–1971), 22 ff.Google Scholar; Otten, H., “Zum hethitischen Gewichtssystem,” AfO 17 (1954/1957) 128–131Google Scholar; there is no direct mention of the price of gold in the Hittite sources, but Werner, R., Hethitiscke Gerichtsprotokolle (Wiesbaden, 1967), 73, Fr. 2270/c, lines 2–5Google Scholar, relates that 8 cows (or oxen) were bought for two shekels of gold (= 4 cows (oxen)—1 shekel of gold); according to the Hittite Laws (Goetze, A., Kleinasien (München, 1957), 121Google Scholar) various kinds of cows and oxen had the price of 4–12 shekels of silver; so if we take the minimal price, we receive 16 shekels of silver for one shekel of gold, if the maximum 48:1, and if the average 32 shekels of silver for one shekel of gold.

28 XV century B.C.

29 XII century B.c., according to Černy, J., “Prices and Wages in Egypt in the Ramesside Period,” CHM 1 (1953), 905–906Google Scholar.

30 Bottéro, J., ARMT VII, 298Google Scholar; ARMT VI, 98, 1–11Google Scholar; Leemans, , Gold (RlA III, 512)Google Scholar.

31 Depending on the quality of both gold and silver; Garelli, p. 269; Leemans, , Gold (RlA III, 512)Google Scholar.

32 Cross, pp. 21, 46–47; Steele, pp. 34–35; the cheaper price was more frequent.

33 Bottéro, J., ARMT VII, 294Google Scholar; ARMT VII, 88, 12—10.2Google Scholar shekels of tin for 1 shekel of silver; 233, 11–18—14 tin for 1 silver.

34 Garelli, pp. 220–281, Veenhof, pp. 79 and 350.

35 Cross, pp. 44–46; Steele, pp. 34–35.

36 Goetze, , Kleinasien, 122Google Scholar (according to the Hittite laws) 1/4 shekel of silver for 1 mina of copper; ratio 1:160, taking into account that the Hittite mina consisted of 40 shekels.

37 Çerny, p. 905.

38 Bottéro, J., ARMT VII, 295Google Scholar.

39 Garelli, pp. 296–97—variations depending on quality.

40 PRU VI, 6Google Scholar (36) a-na ja-a-ši hurāṣu (GUŠKIN) (37) dan-niš ṣi-bu-[ti]-ia; cf. Heltzer, M., IOS (1974), 5–6Google Scholar.

41 Unfortunately we have absolutely no data about the prices of metals and no other prices from Cyprus and the Aegean.

42 Larsen, M. T., Old Assyrian Caravan Procedures (Istanbul, 1967)Google Scholar.

43 PRU VI, 14 (RS.19.50)Google Scholar; U V, 57 (RS.20.227).

44 Modern site, Meskene; cf. Margueron, J., CRAIBL 1975, 201–13Google Scholar.

45 U V, 38 (RS.20.16).

46 KBo I, 10Google Scholar gives the answer of Hattusilis III of Hatti to the Babylonian king Kadašman-Enlil, reacting to the latter's complaint: (14) […concerning that which you have said: My tamkāru in the land Amurru, in Ugarit (15) [… were k]illed. In the Hittite land (i.e. in the lands under Hittite overlordship) nobody was killed.—(14) […a-k]a-an-na ta-aš-pu-ra um-ma-a amē l.meštamkārē-ia i-na mātA-mur-ri mātÚ-ga-ri-it (15) […id-d]a-ák-ku i-na mātHa-at-ti na-bu-ul-ta u-ul i-du-uk-ku; Cf. Luterani, SU, 95–96; Korošec, V., Hethitica (Ljubljana, 1958), 16–17Google Scholar.

47 (5) … ma-a šàr mātÚ-ga-ri-it (6) harrânimeš ša amēi.meštamkārī [il]-ta-na-ri-iq-mi.

48 (17) … 50 ma-na hurāṣa.

49 (12) iš-tu 10 ha-ar-ra-ni ša bīt du-up-pa-ši. Sasson, J., JAOS 86 (1966), 135 note 52Google Scholar, “house of tabletship”, “accounting house”. duppaššu—AHw, 177.

50 U V, 53 (RS.20.15); PRU VI, 137 (RS.19.27)Google Scholar; 138 (RS.19.46) etc.

51 (19) 20 bilat siparrūmeš.

52 (20) … 1 bil[a]t 1 li-im (21) [x me-a]t mu-uṭ-ṭu-ú.

53 But no less than 53,000 shekels of bronze.

54 (24) 8 bilat annaku u 7 me-at šu-ut.

55 (25) ù 1 a-ga-an-nu siparru (26) 1 bilat šu-ut i-na libbibi-šu me-at mu-uṭ-ṭu-ú.

56 (31) … ŠÁMmeš 5 imērimeš … (32) 10 bilat siparri.

57 Cf. also PRU VI, 8 (RS.17.239)Google Scholar.

58 PRU VI, 6 (RS.17.144), 11Google Scholar; 14 (RS.19.50).

59 Meissner, p. 18.

60 Cf. note 27 above that the Hittite mina consisted of 40 shekels; Hittite Laws, § 178; the price of donkeys is equal according to this paragraph to the prices of cows and oxen; Goetze, , Kleinasien, 121Google Scholar.

61 Cross, p. 21; Steele, p. 34.

62 Despite a lot of mentions of donkeys, price never given or preserved.

63 Average—20 shekels (Garelli, pp. 299–300).

64 PRU V, 101, 21Google Scholar; 1 ox—10 shekels of silver; PRU VI, 38 (RS.17.356), 6Google Scholar; 1 ox—17 shekels of silver.

65 Meissner, 16; Petschow, H. P., Mittelbabylonische Rechts- und Wirtschaftsurkunden der Hilprecht-Sammlung, Jena (Berlin, 1974), No. 3Google Scholar; 3 year-old ox—7 shekels, No. 6; 2 year-old ox—2 shekels.

66 Cross, p. 19; Steele, p. 34.

67 Garelli, p. 312.

68 On seafaring activities in Ugarit, cf. Sasson, J., “Canaanite Maritime Involvement in the Second Millennium B.C.”, JAOS 86 (1966), 126–138Google Scholar; Astour, M. C., “Ma'hadu, the Harbour of Ugarit,” JESHO 13 (1970), 113–170Google Scholar; Fensham, C. H., “Shipwreck in Ugarit and Ancient Near Eastern Law Codes,” OA 6 (1967), 221–224 etcGoogle Scholar.

69 PRU VI, 126, (RS.19.28)Google Scholar. According to this text various garments were given “to Abihili (destined) for Byblos,” (9) qāt IA-bi-hi-li (10) a[na] ālGu-ub-li; cf. also PRU V, 106Google Scholar, where the king of Byblos is mentioned in connection with maritime trade.

70 PRU V, 59Google Scholar, (UT.2059); Lipiński, E., “L'amarrage de Tyr,” (Syria 44 (1967), 282 ff.)Google Scholar; cf. also PRU V, 63, (UT.2063)Google Scholar.

71 PRU V, 95Google Scholar (UT.2095); U V, 21 (RS.20.168) etc.

72 PRU III, 16. 238, 10–15Google Scholar.

73 Liverani, SU, 81–82; Heltzer, M., “Tamkār et son rôle dans l'Asie Occidentale du XIV–XII siècles”, VDI (1964) N22, 3–16 (Russian)Google Scholar; Yaron, R., “Foreign Merchants at Ugarit,” ILR 4 (1969), 70–79Google Scholar.

74 The reading according to Berger, , UF 2 (1970), 287Google Scholar.

75 Our translation.

76 Hittite king.

77 On the possibility of reading e-ṭe 4-er-šu, and especially ṭe 4, see von Soden, W., Röllig, W., Das Akkadische Syllabar (Roma, 1967), 41, No. 218Google Scholar. The verb is eṭēru II “to save”, AHw, 264.

78 I.e. the king of Ugarit.

79 The Hittite Empire.

80 Lit. “words”.

81 Heltzer, M., IOS 4 (1974), 4–11Google Scholar.

82 (13) ŠE.BAR.MEŠ an-nu-ti […] (14)a-na āl Ú-r[a…]

83 Klengel, GS II, 395.

84 Frost, H., “The Stone-Anchors of Ugarit”, U VI, Paris, (1969), 235Google Scholar.

85 KBo XII, 42 rev., col IIIGoogle Scholar (= ABoT 49); Hoffner, H. A., “A Hittite Text in Epic Style about Merchants,” JCS 22 (1968/1969), 34–45Google Scholar.

86 (3) LÚ.MEŠ.DÀM.GAR.HI.A uruÚ-[ra-a ur]uZa-al-l[a-ra].

87 Halki—line 9, commentary p. 40.

88 (10) KÙ.BABBAR GUŠKI[N].

89 (11) …UR[UDU ZABAR] (12) [A]N.NA.HI.A.—the restoration according to the usual mention of metals in the texts, Hoffner, p. 36, note 15.

90 Syrian wool and among it blue-purple wool. Cf. Otten, H., “Ein Hethitischer Vertag aus dem 15/14 Jahrhundert v.Chr. (KBo XVI, 47),” IM 17 (1967), 53–62, esp. 59Google Scholar.

91 Klengel, H., “Hungersjahre in Haiti,” AOF 1 (1974), 171–174Google Scholar.

92 Otten, Ein hethitischer Vertrag …

93 UV, 34 (RS.20.141B)—30 ships; PRU V, 62, 4–5Google Scholar (UT.2062) etc. Cf. also Sasson, J., “Canaanite Maritime Involvement …”, JAOS 86 (1966), 126–138Google Scholar.