The Canadian Study of Health and Aging (CHSA) provided an opportunity to examine the positive aspects of aging. CHSA-2 included the 18-item Ryff multidimensional measure of well-being, which taps six core theoretical dimensions of positive psychological functioning. The measure was administered to 4,960 seniors without severe cognitive impairment or dementia at CSHA-2. Intercorrelations across scales were generally low. At the same time, the internal consistency reliability of each of the 6 subscales was not found to be high. Confirmatory factor analyses provide support for a 6-factor model, although some items demonstrate poor factor loadings. The well-being measures in CSHA-2 provide an opportunity to examine broad, descriptive patterns of well-being in Canadian seniors.

This article reports the findings of a 3-year epidemiological survey for dementia in an urban community-resident population in Mumbai (Bombay), India, wherein the prevalence of all types of dementia was determined. Method: The study was conducted in three stages. Stage 1: From a potential pool of 30,000 subjects aged 40 years or more, 24,488 (male = 11,875; female = 12,613) persons completed self-report or interviewer-rated protocols based on the Sandoz Clinical Assessment Geriatric Scale, but 5,512 (18.37%) persons refused to participate. Scores on the protocol had a possible range from 0 through 34. Stage 2: Persons with a score +2SD above the mean were selected in this stage where the persons were screened for cognitive functioning using a modified and translated version of the Mini-Mental State Examination. Individuals who scored below the 5th percentile were included in Stage 3 and underwent a detailed neurological, psychiatric, and neuropsychological evaluation as well as hematological, radiological, electrocardiographic, and electroencephalographic investigations. Diagnoses were made jointly by a neurologist, psychiatrist, and psychologist using the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria. Subjects were also rated on the Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) scale and assessed for activities of daily living. Results: One hundred five subjects with dementia (CDR ≥ 0.5) were identified in this population of 24,488 persons. The prevalence rate for dementia in those aged 40 years and more was 0.43% and for persons aged 65 and above was 2.44%. Seventy-eight individuals had a CDR of ≥ 1 yielding an overall prevalence rate of 0.32%, and a prevalence rate of 1.81% for those aged 65 years and older. The overall prevalence rate for Alzheimer's disease (AD) in the population was 0.25%, and 1.5% for those aged 65 years and above. AD (n = 62;65%) was the most common cause of dementia followed by vascular dementia (n = 23;22%). There were more women (n = 38) than men (n = 24) in the AD group. Increasing age was associated with a higher prevalence of the dementia syndrome in general as well as AD specifically. Conclusion: In the population surveyed, the prevalence of AD and other dementias is less than that reported from developed countries but similar to results of other studies in India. Prevalence of the dementia syndrome increased with age and was not related to gender. AD was the most common dementia and the prevalence was higher in women than in men. Results are discussed with respect to shorter life expectancy, relocation of affected persons, and differences in the risk factors as compared to developed countries.

Background: The length of stay and bed usage on acute psychogeriatric admission wards are influenced by several factors. The impact of a dedicated specialist social worker working exclusively with acutely ill psychogeriatric inpatients and with a dedicated budget for domiciliary care packages on the length of stay, bed usage, and costs was evaluated in an opportunistic “before and after” cohort study. Method: The length of stay and bed usage for a 7-month period when a dedicated social worker and a dedicated budget for domiciliary care packages were implemented were compared with an identical 7-month period the year before. Costs incurred for extracontractual referral admissions (ECRs) were also calculated for the same periods. Results: The implementation of a dedicated specialist social worker with a dedicated budget for domiciliary care packages did not demonstrate a statistically significant reduction in length of stay, but bed usage was reduced in both the local National Health Service hospital and the ECR units. The costs incurred for ECR admissions were also reduced; this reduction in costs was similar to the cost of employing a dedicated specialist social worker with the domiciliary care package. Conclusions: A dedicated specialist social worker working exclusively with psychogeriatric inpatients with a dedicated budget for domiciliary care packages was demonstrated to be cost-effective in this study. Ideally, a multicenter, randomized, and controlled study of such an intervention should be undertaken to confirm these findings.

We compared the rate of falling in older nursing home residents who had been prescribed selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), other classes of antidepressants, and no antidepressants. Data were obtained from pharmacy records, medical records, fall logs, and incidence reports for one nursing home (1995 data). Older adults on SSRIs were more likely to fall than older adults not on antidepressants (p = .003) and were more likely to have an injurious fall (p = .03). The association with falling remained significant even when including potential confounders (p = .007). Older nursing home residents should be treated for depression. However, SSRIs may also carry an increased risk for falling.

Rapid transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) applied to the left dorsal lateral frontal cortex has been shown to produce antidepressant effects. Older depressed patients, however, in one study showed a lower response rate than younger patients. The current study examined treatment response in 20 depressed, treatment-refractory patients (mean age 60.7 ± 9.8 years) given five sessions of rTMS at 20 Hz for 2 seconds over 20 trains at 80% of motor threshold or identical placebo stimulation, after patients had been withdrawn from their antidepressants. There were no significant differences in Hamilton Depression Scale scores either before or after treatment at 7 days' follow-up. There were three responders to active treatment and three to sham treatment and responders had significantly greater frontal lobe volume than nonresponders (p=.03). These findings suggest that the stimulation parameters used in this study were probably insufficient to produce treatment response and that frontal atrophy may interfere with the effectiveness of rTMS.

Data from the Canadian Study of Health and Aging (CSHA) allow investigators to study patterns and predictors of mortality and institutional placement in a well characterized, population-based cohort of elderly Canadians. However, it is impossible to study the timing of these events if the date of occurrence is missing. This technical article describes a procedure for imputing missing dates of death or institutionalization. The first step consists in identifying and correcting dates that are inconsistent with other available dates on which we know the event has or has not occurred. A missing date for an event is then replaced by the middle of a range of plausible dates for its occurrence. This constitutes a valuable addition to the CSHA data since it precludes the loss of information that results from discarding subjects with missing occurrence dates in time-to-event analyses.

Objective: To estimate comparative mangement levels and the annual cost of caring for a nursing home resident with and without dementia. Method: Data from the 1995 Massachusetts Medicaid nursing home database were used to examine residents with Alzheimer's disease, other types of dementia, and no dementia to determine care and dependency levels. Massachusetts Medicaid 1997 per-diem rates for each of 10 designated management levels were applied accordingly to residents in each level to estimate annual care costs. Costs from this analysis are reported in 1997 U.S. dollars. Results: Of the 49,724 nursing home residents identified, 26.4% had a documented diagnosis of dementia. On average, a resident with dementia requires 229 more hours of care annually than one without dementia, resulting in a mean additional cost of $3,865 per patient with dementia per year. Conclusions: Dementia increases the care needs and cost of caring for a nursing home resident.

Many people with dementia reside in care facilities. Little is known about how key parameters impact upon their quality of life (QOL). All 209 people with dementia in six facilities received a standardized assessment (Neuropsychiatric Inventory [NPI], Barthel Scale, psychotropic drugs). One hundred twelve residents were assessed using Dementia Care Mapping, an observational method for QOL indices. Lower performance on activities of daily living (reduced well-being [WB] r = +0.39, p < .0001; social withdrawal [SW] r = +0.42, p < .0001; engagement in activities [EA] r = +0.31, p = .001) and taking psychotropics (WB 2.5 vs. 3.2, t = .2.3, p = .02; SW 11.4% vs. 2.7%, t = 3.0, p = .004; EA 56.5% vs. 71.9%; t = 3.5, p = .001) were associated with reduced QOL, but symptoms from the NPI were not. More focused prescribing of psychotropics and better staff training are essential.

Objective: To examine the efficacy of fluoxetine in the treatment of depression in patients with probable Alzheimer's disease (AD). Methods: This double-blind, parallel-design study included a consecutive series of 41 AD subjects meeting DSM-IV criteria for major or minor depression who were randomized to receive fluoxetine (up to 40 mg/day) or identical-appearing placebo. All patients received biweekly evaluations consisting of the Hamilton Depression Scale (HAM-D) and the Clinical Global Impression as primary efficacy measures, and the Mini-Mental State Exam, Hamilton Rating Scale for Anxiety, and the Functional Independence Measure as secondary efficacy measures. Results: Complete remission of depression was found in 47% of subjects treated with fluoxetine and in 33% of subjects treated with placebo. Both the fluoxetine and the placebo groups showed a significant decline in HAM-D scores over time, but the magnitude of mood improvement was similar for both groups. Fluoxetine was well tolerated, and most side effects were mild. Conclusion: Fluoxetine treatment for depression in AD did not differ significantly from treatment with placebo. Our study also confirms the presence of a placebo effect in the treatment of depression in AD.

The objective of this study was to analyze the relationship of the apolipoprotein E (apoE) ε4 and ε2 alleles to learning and memory performances in the nondemented oldest old. Forty-six nondemented persons aged 85 years or over from a randomly selected group of 128 subjects in Vantaa, Finland, were studied. ApoE genotyping was performed using the minisequencing technique. A structured clinical examination and interview were carried out. The test variables studied were learning and memory scores (from the Fuld Object-Memory Evaluation), verbal fluency, and conceptualization (the Similarities subtest of the WAIS-R). We compared apoE-ε4 carriers to noncarriers and apoE-ε2 carriers to noncarrirs. No statistically significant differences were found in any of the test variables. The results failed to confirm the hypotheses that poor cognitive performance is associated with the apoE-ε4 allele and good performance with the apoE-ε2 allele in the oldest old. This suggests that the apoE alleles do not have a detectable relationship to learning and memory in nondemented very elderly people.

Background: This article examines some of the factors responsible for older patients' decision to report current depressive symptoms to their general medical practitioner. A companion article considers factors contributing to general practitioners' (GPs') recognition of major depressive episode when it was present. Methods: A survey was conducted of a stratified sample of 1,021 patients aged 70+ years of 30 GPs in Melbourne, Australia, to gauge the prevalence of depressive symptoms, the frequency with which patients had informed GPs of their symptoms, and GPs' recognition of major depressive episodes. Patients and informants were questioned using the Canberra Interview for the Elderly, which generates rigorous ICD-10 research diagnoses. Results: Logistic regression analysis showed that symptom disclosure was associated in descending order of importance with higher depressive scores, previous contact with a psychiatrist, and female gender. Even so, 48% of persons with ICD-10 moderate or severe depressive episode had not reported any current complaints to their doctor at the time of interview. Conclusion: Older patients often do not report depressive symptoms to their medical practitioner. Men and patients lacking “psychological mindedness” may be at special risk.

This study examined the demographic, medical, and psychiatric correlates of hallucinations and paranoid delusions reported by proxy informants for 822 elders aged 70 or older. This sample comprised people who were deemed unable to complete a direct interview in a large nationwide study of aging. Marital status, trouble with vision, and cognitive impairment were associated with report of both paranoid delusions and hallucinations. Depressive symptoms and stroke were associated with hallucinations only. These results suggest that inadequate external stimulation in the elderly leads to psychotic experiences.

The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of psychotropic use in nursing home residents, the extent to which psychotropic dosage is consistent with published guidelines, and the relationships between psychotropic class and psychiatric and behavioral disturbances. Six hundred forty-seven subjects, mean age 82.3 years, residing in 11 nursing homes in the eastern suburbs of Sydney, Australia, were assessed using the Behavioral Pathology in Alzheimer's Disease Rating Scale (BEHAVE-AD), the Abbreviated Mental Test Scale, and the Even Briefer Assessment Scale for Depression (EBAS-DEP). Details of psychotropic prescription and diagnoses of depression, dementia, and psychosis were obtained from nursing home charts. Psychotropics were prescribed for 333 (51.5%) residents, 381 (58.9%) if “as required” (PRN) use is included. Prescription of multiple psychotropics was present in 148 (22.7%) residents. Antidepressants were prescribed for 19.8% of residents, with subtherapeutic doses less likely in residents on selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. On logistic regression, the use of antidepressants was predicted by the affective disturbances subscale on the BEHAVE-AD. Only 30.4% of residents with significant depressive symptoms on the EBAS-DEP were prescribed antidepressants. Antipsychotics were prescribed for 21.3% residents at a mean dosage of 73 mg chlorpromazine equivalence. Residents on antipsychotics had significantly higher scores on the delusions, hallucinations, activity disturbance, and aggressiveness subscales of the BEHAVE-AD. On logistic regression, only the activity disturbance subscale and chart diagnoses of dementia and psychosis were significant predictors. Psychosis (58.8%) and behavioral disturbances (91.9%) were more prevalent in residents prescribed antipsychotics than in residents not prescribed antipsychotics (42.5% and 76.6%, respectively). High rates of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia remained in residents prescribed antipsychotics and high rates of depressive symptoms in residents prescribed antidepressants, suggesting a role for nonpharmacological strategies.

There was a five-year delay between the two waves of the Canadian Study of Health and Aging during which 2,982 participants died. Their cognitive status before death should be taken into account in estimating the incidence of dementia in the cohort. Information concerning antemortem cognitive status was available from death certificates and from an interview with a close relative of the decedent at the CSHA-2 follow-up. The interview included a direct question on whether the person had been diagnosed with dementia and questions covering cognitive signs and symptoms from which we formed an algorithm to predict probability of dementia. These sources of information were validated using a small sample of study participants who died within five months of undergoing the CSHA clinical examination. Sensitivity of the death certificate and the question regarding diagnosis of dementia was low (33% and 44%), although their specificity was very high. Accordingly, we combined these with the predictive algorithm to form an overall estimate of the probability of antemortem dementia. This raised the sensitivity to 82% (specificity 93%).

Butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) is expressed in brain structures involved in cognition, but the effect of selective BuChE inhibitors on human cognitive function is unknown. We report a patient whose cognitive function deteriorated following a reduction and improved following reinstitution of ethopropazine, a selective BuChE inhibitor. We suggest that, because neurons expressing BuChE may be involved in cognition, there is merit to further evaluation of selective BuChE inhibitors in treating cognitive dysfunction.

Background: It is important that serious depressive illness be recognized and treated appropriately by primary care practitioners. This and the preceding article in this issue examine (a) factors responsible for older patients' decision to report depressive symptoms to their doctor and (b) general practitioners' (GPs') recognition of depression when it was present. Methods: A survey was conducted of a stratified sample of 1,021 patients aged 70+ years of 30 GPs in Melbourne, Australia, using the Canberra Interview for the Elderly, which generates rigorous ICD-10 research diagnoses. Results: GPs' ratings of depression were best predicted in descending order of importance by patients' past contact with a psychiatrist, the doctor's view that a patient did not have dementia, the number of current depressive symptoms, patients' disclosure of these symptoms, and current physical pain. Physicians' assessments of patients' mood concurred with research diagnoses in 23 of 35 (66%) cases of ICD-10 mild depressive episode and 23 of 26 (88%) cases of moderate or severe depressive episode. GPs were unaware, however, of many depressive symptoms and often rated patients as being depressed when they were not. Conclusion: The use of a simple checklist of depressive symptoms would lead to a dramatic improvement in doctors' knowledge of patients' current psychiatric status.

This study sought an operational definition of parkinsonism in elderly people (n = 2,914) who underwent a clinical examination in the Canadian Study of Health and Aging (CSHA). Parkinsonism was defined as having two of the following features: (1) bradykinesia of face or limbs, (2) resting tremor, (3) rigidity, and (4) abnormality of gait and posture. The association of parkinsonism with other parkinsonian-related features (prior diagnosis of Parkinson's disease, use of drugs with extrapyramidal side effects, and use of antiparkinsonian medications) and variables not expected to be related to parkinsonism (stroke and Hachinski score > 5) was determined. Parkinsonism was identified in 337 people (11.6%). It was significantly more likely with other parkinsonian-related characteristics, and was not associated with a history of stroke, but was slightly higher among those subjects with a Hachinski score > 5. Posture and gait abnormalities were significantly associated with other parkinsonian-related variables, but were also more common among subjects with stroke-related features. When the gait and posture disturbance category was excluded as a parkinsonian sign, the narrower definition was more specific but less sensitive in detecting cases with a clinical diagnosis of Parkinson's disease. Despite limitations, the approach presented in this article is a valid method to operationalize parkinsonism from the dataset.

Nicotinic receptor loss has been implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. The present study investigated the effects of chronic low-dose transdermal nicotine in a cohort of nondemented, healthy volunteers (mean age 63 years). The majority of subjects (85%) had a first-degree relation with dementia. Subjects were tested using a before, during, and after design on a battery of tests known to be sensitive to early cognitive decline. A mixed pattern of results was seen, with significant changes occurring with verbal learning, object learning, delayed recall, and word retrieval. Nicotine had no effect on measures of concentration or psychomotor speed. The effects were most noticeable in subjects at the lower end of baseline test performance on the tasks used. The results are discussed with reference to the relationship between strategic nicotinic receptor loss and measurable psychometric change. The potential therapeutic role of nicotinic agonists in preclinical “at risk” individuals is supported by the results of this study.

Objectives: To evaluate the applicability of the Chinese version of the Neuropsychiatric Inventory Scale (NPI), and to explore the neuropsychiatric manifestations of Taiwanese patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and caregiver distress. Method: The Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) was administered to 95 patients with AD, and their caregivers were interviewed with the NPI. To assess the test-retest reliability of the Chinese version of the NPI, 86 caregivers underwent a second NPI 3 weeks later. Results: The Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the Chinese version of the NPI was .76. The test-rest reliabilities of frequency, severity, and caregiver burden scores were significantly correlated; overall correlations were .85 for frequency (p < .001), .82 for severity (p < .001), and .79 (p < .001) for distress. Factor analysis was carried out, and three groups, “mood and psychosis,” “psychomotor regulation,” and “social engagement,” were found. Aberrant motor behavior was the most frequently recorded behavior; euphoria was the least. There was no significant correlation between the patient's MMSE and the caregiver distress score, except for aberrant motor activity (r = −.23, p = .03). The symptoms most frequently reported to be severely distressing to caregivers were aberrant motor activity, anxiety, agitation, and delusions. Conclusions: These results indicate that the NPI is a reliable tool to assess behavioral disturbance and caregiver distress in Taiwanese AD patients. These findings also confirm the high prevalence of psychopathology among AD patients and the marked distress produced by many of these behaviors.