The distribution pattern and larval behaviour of the major flower and pod borer Lampides boeticus on vegetable lablab were studied in Bangalore, India. The distribution of eggs and bored flower buds were found to be contagious. Most of the flower buds with pin hole damage had small larva (first and second instar) inside them. Flower buds with medium damage had medium larva (third instar). The flower buds and pods with large damage very rarely harboured larva. The medium and large larvae migrated and caused damage to flower buds and pods. Use of larval behaviour in developing a suitable pest management programme is indicated.

Crop Protection Training Department activities contribute to one of the primary objectives of the Permanent Interstate Committee Against Drought in the Sahel (CILSS), that is, agricultural self-sufficiency. Thus, since 1982, the Crop Protection Training Department has been in charge of implementing this objective, by the increased protection of crops and agricultural products against pests, diseases, and noxious weeds, using methods which can readily be incorporated into traditional farming practices.

Training courses are variable in length, and are designed for persons in middle to high positions, who will be able to immediately apply and use the training. The training course for Technicians in Crop Protection is the longest, lasting 2 years, and may be taken by those having achieved the level of Technical Agent in Agriculture. Shorter courses (4 months), are aimed at the more highly trained, particularly crop protection instructors at schools of agriculture, who can disseminate the information to the various participating states, and who can train high-level technicians and agricultural engineers to assist and educate the local farmers more efficiently. Short courses of 3 weeks are organized by member states to address specific problems (i.e. locusts, borers) or to counter an organizational problem (i.e. phytosanitary control). Training courses generally do not directly involve local peasant farmers, but do so indirectly through the mediation of trained personnel.

As regards dissemination of information on plant protection these are the same categories of personnel who are in contact with the research workers in the Sahel.

The influence of temperature and humidity on the biology of insecticide-resistant and susceptible strains of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) was studied and compared.

At all temperatures (20, 25,30 and 40°C) and r.h. (30, 50,70, 90) tested, the insecticide-resistant strain matured earlier than the susceptible strain. For both strains, the lowest and highest temperature limits for embryonic development and egg hatching were 20 and 40°C, respectively. The incubation period for eggs of both strains averaged 14 days at 20°C and 4 days at 30°C.

Females of the insecticide-resistant strain matured for egg laying earlier (24 hr) than the susceptible strain (60 hr) but laid fewer eggs (36 eggs) than the latter strain (238 eggs). At 30°C and 70% r.h. the resistant strain had a shorter developmental period (15 days) than the susceptible strain (21 days).

Temperature influenced the development of larvae of both strains of T. castaneum. Larvae of the susceptible strain did not develop at 20°C and 30% r.h., 20°C and 90 % r.h. and 40°C and 30%. r.h., whereas larvae of the resistant strains did.

The pupae of both strains developed at all the temperature and relative humidity regimens tested. Temperature and humidity of stored food would therefore, act together to influence the abundance of strains of T. castaneum and the two factors could be manipulated to suppress the population growth of this beetle on stored food.

The survival rates of humus-feeding Cubitermes testaceus (Williams) workers were determined in relation to soil organic matter content. Field collected termites survived for 15.5 days when fed on soil with the highest content of organic matter (5.1%) and for 8.1 days when fed on soil with the lowest content of organic matter (3.2%). Possible reasons for termite workers' survival are discussed.

As a background to an IPM project, this paper describes pesticide treatment of cotton in Sudan Gezira, starting in 1945/46. Until the end of the 1950's, one treatment per season was sufficient to control the only important pest, the jassid, Empoasca lybica, but the number of treatments increased during the 1960's (from 3 to 5) and has since the early 1970's been 6–9.

The continuous use of pesticides has resulted in changes of the pest complex, ultimately creating “hyper” pests such as the whitefly (Bemisia tabaci), cotton bollworm (Heliothis armigera) and aphids (Aphis gossypii). The increase in number of applications of pesticide is coupled with the rising costs of pest control and a stagnant yield. The stickiness problem created by the honey dew of whitefly and aphids increased with the rising number of sprays. The exclusive use of chemical control not only failed to improve the quality or quantity of the yield, but put a great strain on the national economy as well.

The Sudan therefore requested the FAO to initiate an IPM project starting in 1979, with financial support from the Netherlands. During the past 2 years support has also been given by the World Bank. The IPM approach has given very valuable results during the last two seasons when large (more than 100 acres) plots in the Gezira and Rahad Schemes were left unsprayed with the objective of investigating the potential of the natural enemies in the absence of pesticides, and to compare findings with population trends of pest and beneficial organisms in the fields subjected to conventional chemical control.

The first significant finding was that Bemisia tabaci and Aphis gossypii can be managed at desirable levels by their indigenous natural enemies, and that their outbreaks are attributed to the decimation of these natural enemies by chemical treatment. Populations of beneficial arthropods were consistently much lower in the fields which received regular pesticide applications.

The result of the large-scale experiments indicate that Empoasca lybica is the only really damaging pest (“key pest”) in the Gezira because of the absence of natural enemies to regulate its population. Control of E. lybica in the 1940's and 1950's resulted in the creation of Heliothis armigera as a major pest. This situation necessitated early season applications of pesticides to suppress H. armigera, which further reduced the role of the natural enemies of B. tabaci and A. gossypii. Both have developed into major pests of regular occurrence.

Cotton farmers in Gezira are now faced with a complex of very serious pests. In order to solve this problem, we will have to make drastic changes in pest control strategies and to adopt an IPM approach as soon as possible. The biological control H. armigera is considered as first priority in order to avoid the early season application of pesticides. Trichogramma pretiosum was introduced from the USA and released in the Rahad Scheme in 1988/89. The preliminary results are very promising.

Cultural and biological control of E. lybica will be attempted in order to further reduce pesticide applications. The control of this pest by the use of “milder” pesticides is also included in the programme.

The presently used threshold levels for all major pests are very low, and are under revision through properly conducted large-scale experiments.

We studied the behaviour of three Anastrepha spp. (Diptera: Tephritidae) that were attracted to protein hydrolysate in glass McPhail traps, hung on an 8 m tall wild mango tree, Mangifera indica at three different heights. Out of 665 flies that landed on the exterior of the trap only 31 % were caught. Females represented 60.2 % of all flies trapped. The intermediate trap hung at 5m caught the most flies (57.5%). We observed a great deal of feeding activity (on trap, leaves, branches and fruit) including régurgitation and reingestion of liquid food droplets. When not on the trap surface, flies were more commonly seen on leaves than on branches and fruits. Inter- and intraspecific encounters between all Anastrepha spp. and both sexes were commonly recorded. Males were observed calling alone or in leks. All leks were formed on leaves and on two occasions included individuals of two species. Our observations suggested that the McPhail traps attracted different Anastrepha spp. with varying degrees of intensity.

The pink mealybug Maconellicoccus (=Phenacoccus) hirsutus (Green) (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera) occurs in more than 13 countries, but has a major pest status only in Egypt and India. Its biology, host range, ant association, natural enemies and methods of control are reviewed here.

The sensitivity of different larval stage duration pupae of Mediterranean fruit-fly, Ceratitis capitata to gamma irradiation, was tested by exposing pupae, 1 day before adult eclosion, to various gamma ray doses (60, 80 and 100 Gy). The treated pupae were biologically different in their larval span (5, 7 and 9 days). The pupae of med-fly having shorter larval period (5 days) were more resistant to sterilizing effects of gamma irradiation than those having longer larval period (9 days). The longevity of sterilized females developing from irradiated pupae, which had 5-and 7-day larval span, was increased considerably. Treatment of pupae which had 5-day larval span with a dose of 80 Gy, resulted in females which lived 84.3 days, but laid only 2.33 eggs as compared with their control females which lived 51.4 days and laid 976.71 eggs. In general, irradiation of pupae of different larval stage duration with a dose of 60 Gy or greater did not adversely affect the longevity of emerging adults. It is concluded that 60 Gy-irradiation of pupae having long larval span (9 days) should be used in the sterile insect release method for population suppression of Ceratitis capitata.

FAO's role in integrated pest management (IPM) in Africa has many components. Broadly speaking, it is the promotion of IPM in member countries, done within the context of strengthening plant protection in general and under the guidance of the FAO/UNEP Panel of Experts on Integrated Pest Control.

Activity areas undertaken by FAO which have links with IPM, include:

Awareness, creation and promotion of IPM

Organizes meetings, seminars, workshops, etc. to discuss and present results obtained in field projects; participates in meetings organized by other organizations; prepares publications on IPM in general, or on specific components of IPM, and on results obtained in field projects; and prepares teaching and training materials on improved plant protection and IPM.

Infrastructure

Sets up or strengthens plant protection services or plant research institutes to make them functional, giving due consideration to regulatory functions; gives training in improved plant protection at all levels within the framework of the field programme.

Development

Develops appropriate pest control measures in line with the IPM strategy.

Implementation

Conducts field projects to strengthen capabilities in plant protection at the national level; conducts IPM implementation projects and plant production/protection projects.

Policy development

Convenes regular meetings of statutory bodies (various panel meetings); convenes meetings or expert consultations on special topics; advises member countries on strategies to increase capabilities in plant protection.

Co-ordination

Convenes donor meetings; co-ordinates donor activities and inputs; conducts regional or global activities on specific topics such as quarantine, pesticide residues, etc.

The predacious mite, Hypoaspis vacua (Michael) successfully developed from larva to adult stage when fed on eggs of housefly, Musca domestica (L.) and nymphs of acarid mite, Rhizoglyphus echinopus (Fum. & Rob.) in the laboratory. The duration of the immature stages and of the adult stage were determined. Food type greatly affected female fecundity and feeding capacity. Immature stages of H. vacua consumed in total an average of 13.6 eggs of M. domestica and 33.0 nymphs of R. echinopus, whereas each day throughout her life, the adult female consumed an average of 4.1 eggs of M. domestica and 13.23 nymphs of R. echinopus. Eggs of housefly were the most suitable diet, as it prolonged adult longevity (76.8 days) and increased female fecundity (1.3 eggs/female/day).

The predacious mite, Cydnodromella negevi (Swirski & Amitai) completed life cycle when fed on the tetranychid mites Eutetranychus orientalis (Klein), Tetranychus urticae Koch and pollen grains of Ricinus communis (L.) as an alternative food substance in the laboratory. The duration of the immature stages and adult stage were determined. Immature stages of C. negevi consumed in total an average of 27 E. orientalis and 34 T. urticae, whereas each day throughout her life, the adult female consumed an average of 11 of E. orientalis and T. urticae. While feeding on these prey, C. negevi laid 1.3 and 1.0 eggs per day. The number of eggs deposited per day increased (3.3 eggs/female/day) when fed on eriophyid mites. Females neither fed nor reproduced on liquid nutrients.

The colony foundation and development, and pattern of young and established nests of Odontotermes obesus and O. wallonensis were investigated. Swarming of alates of both the species occurred during pre-monsoon (April/May) and continued throughout the wet months. After pairing, alates of both the species selected sites in crevices of the soil or in loose soil for the foundation of a colony. The active construction of the mound was observed during the cool hours of the day in rainy months.

The young nests of O. obesus was conical-shaped with one or more conical turrets, whereas it was dome-shaped with one or two domes like turrets in O. wallonensis. In young colonies, the fungus combs were aggregated in the central cavity and the royal chamber was situated beneath usually at the centre. The established nests of both the species were extended by addition of vaults, galleries, runways, etc. The mound nest was extended in vertical direction in O. obesus, whereas it was extended horizontally in O. wallonensis.

Adult survival, puparial production, weight and viability, and the sex ratio of adults emerging from puparia of Glossina morsitans morsitans Westwood maintained through four successive reproductive cycles on daily (SO), every other day (SI) and every third day (S2) feeding regimen, respectively were investigated at Chilanga, Zambia. Only in puparial production (0.8 under S0 and S1, 0.7 under S2) and puparial weight (25.1±0.2mg under S0, 24.1±0.3mg under S1, 22.5±0.3mg under S2) were significant differences (P<0.05 and <0.01 respectively) detected between feeding regimens. Nevertheless, a combination of S1 and S2 regimens is recommended for further evaluation as a more convenient and economical alternative to the S0 regimen for tsetse mass production in Africa.

Nerve cord sectioning in the early fifth instar larva of Papilio demoleus inhibited or delayed pupation depending on the site of sectioning. This seems to be due to interruption in the feeding leading to interruption in the proprioceptive input reaching the brain. Sectioning of the peripheral nerves N5 and N8 prevented shortening (condensation) of the thoracic segment of the ventral nerve cord in the adult. Sectioning of these and other nerves, however, had no effect on the developmental events.

The seasonal changes in water content and fat content of olive psylla, Euphyllura olivina in the field were investigated in two successive years. The overwintering adults of olive psylla had more fat than spring and summer generation adults. There was a steady increase in % fat contents of females from mid-October to early January. The % fat of both sexes decreased sharply in May, June and July. There was a gradual reduction in % water content from mid-June to early October and then decreased steadily until early November. The % water in the overwintering adults ranged from 57.5 to 45% and became constant around 52.5% of live body weight in February and March. Seasonal changes in % water was positively related to population changes of olive psylla. The % water in olive psylla was negatively related to the fat content.

Influence of age, sex pheromone concentration and mating status on the response of Earias vittella and Earias insulana males to their female sex pheromone was studied using a T- shaped olfactometer. Males of both the species showed age related variation in their response to female sex pheromone and 4-day-old males were maximally responsive. Response of males of both the species to the female sex pheromone was concentration dependent and the level of response generally increased with an increase in pheromone concentration. In E. vittella, response of mated males was comparable with unmated males. In E. insulana, mating caused some reduction in the response of males.

There are 43 identified insect pests of sugar-cane in Mauritius, of which several are important enough to warrant control measures. However, insecticides are not used for this purpose. All the insect pests of sugar-cane are controlled biologically. This includes traditional biological control using parasites or predators, as well as more recent biology-based methods like the use of resistant cane varieties, sex pheromones, etc.

Mauritius has the distinction of being the first country on record to have successfully introduced a natural enemy, namely the Minah bird, specifically to combat a pest—the Red Locust, Nomadacris septemfasciata, in 1792.

Very few of the insect pests in Mauritius are indigenous; most of them are exotic, having been accidentally introduced into the country, one way or the other. Some of the important ones include: spotted stem borer (Chilo sacchariphagus), armoured scale (Aulacaspis tegalensis), white grub (Clemora smithi), white grub (Heteronychus licas), soft scale (Pulvinaria iceyi), armyworm (Leucania loreyi) and pink borer (Sesamia calamistis).

The introduction of various natural enemies from different parts of the world has been made over the years with different degrees of success. In all, there are presently a total of 102 species of parasites and predators controlling 43 species of sugar-cane insect pests.

With sugar-cane spread out over most of the island and representing 90% of all cultivated land, close vigilance over the important pest populations, and swift counter measures as appropriate, is required. This task is being performed efficiently and successfully by the Mauritius Sugar Industry Research Institute.

Studies on relative susceptibility of 78 citrus varieties/hybrids to the incidence of black citrus aphid, T. aurantii under tropical humid conditions in south India revealed that none of the varieties was completely free from aphid incidence. The varieties Nagpur Mandarin and Ikeda Unshiu among mandarins; Longsport Valencia, Campbell Valencia and Washington Navel among sweet oranges; and Carrizo Citrange a hybrid and Dessert Orange, Eureka Lemon, Grape Fruit Pink and Jatti Khatti, among acid citrus group, recorded significantly least mean number of aphids per flush and can be effectively used in breeding programmes.

In field conditions in South Australia hatching of eggs of Ectropis excursaria showed a morning and an afternoon peak. In the laboratory, hatching coincided with “lights-on” stimulus at 20°C, 10:14 and 12:12 L:D. Increase or decrease of temperature by 5°C shifted the start of hatching to late scotophase while increasing photoperiod shifted a substantial proportion of hatching to later in photophase. Survival of first instars was linearly related to saturation-deficit of the atmosphere.

Petroleum ether extract of Eichhornia crassipes (Mart) Solm. was evaluated for its biological activity against Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), Sitophilus oryzae (L.), Callosobruchus maculatiti (F.) and Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton). The crude extract included in the diet of insects retarded development and caused mortality in the fourth instar larvae of T. castaneum and C. cephalonica. Cuticle melanization in patches were observable in C. cephalonica larvae. High mortality of adult C. maculatus occurred in insects confined to the treated diet as well as in insects exposed to treated surfaces. The extract did not show any toxicity to adult S. oryzae.