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² The battles over civil liberties extended far beyond higher education during the war and in its aftermath. Federal legislation restricted the rights of individuals, especially those of foreign birth. President Woodrow Wilson created the Committee on Public Information (CPI) to lead the internal propaganda effort aimed at convincing Americans of the necessity of war while demonizing Germany. The CPI shaped public opinion, stoked the war hysteria, and advanced censorship of the press. Private organizations such as the National Security League went even further. Murphy, Paul L., World War I and the Origin of Civil Liberties in the United States (New York: Norton, 1979), 15; Peterson, H.C. and Fite, Gilbert C., Opponents of War, 1917–1918 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1957); Mock, James R. and Larson, Cedric, Words That Won the War: The Story of the Committee on Public Information, 1911–1919 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1939).Google Scholar

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⁴ Gruber, Mars and Minerva, 174–75; Peckham, Howard H., The Making of the University of Michigan, 1817–1992 (1967; repr., with ref. by Steneck, Margaret L. and Steneck, Nicholas H., Ann Arbor: Bentley Library of the University of Michigan, 1992), 146–47; Matsen, William E., “Professor William, S. [sic] Schaper, War Hysteria and the Price of Academic Freedom,” Minnesota History 51 (Winter 1988): 130–37; Bruce Tap, “Suppression of Dissent: Academic Freedom at the University of Illinois during the World War I Era,” Illinois Historical Journal 85 (Spring 1992): 2–22; Peterson and Fite, Opponents of War, 102–12; William Elmer Nicholas III, “Academic Dissent in World War I, 1917–1918” (PhD dissertation, Tulane University, 1971); Erving E. Beauregard, History of Academic Freedom in Ohio: Case Studies in Higher Education, 1808–1976 (New York: Peter Lang, 1988), 63–72.Google Scholar

⁵ Gruber, , Mars and Minerva, 174.Google Scholar

⁶ Peckham, , Making of the University of Michigan, 140–50; Clifford Wilcox, “World War I and the Attack on Professors of German at the University of Michigan,” History of Education Quarterly 33 (Spring 1993): 59–84; Marwil, Jonathan, A History of Ann Arbor (Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Observer Company, 1987).Google Scholar

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⁸ Peckham, , Making of the University of Michigan, 140–41; Smith, Shirley W., Harry Burns Hutchins and the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1951), 180–90.Google Scholar

⁹ Proceedings of the Board of Regents, University of Michigan (1910–14), 965. http://www.hti.umich.edu/u/umregproc/.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Hutchins, to Henry, Lucien, 14 December 1915, Box 10, Harry, B. Hutchins Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Hutchins Papers).Google Scholar

¹¹ Several speakers, including Taft, William Howard, Garfield, James Rudolph, and Steffens, Lincoln, visited campus to advocate for either entry or neutrality. Others, including Eugene Debs, were banned altogether. Smith, Harry Burns Hutchins, 188.Google Scholar

¹² Hutchins to Florer, Warren W., 16 January 1914, Box 1, Warren, W. Florer Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Florer Papers); Hutchins to Lucien Henry, 14 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Osgerby to Warren W. Florer, 3 April 1915, Box 1, Florer Papers; Hutchins to F.L. Bliss, 26 October 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

¹³ Caroline Alberta Humphrey to Hutchins, 1 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Norman Hill, 18 October 1917, Box 1, Florer Papers.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Hobbs, William H., “Letter to the editor,” New York Times, 18 April 1915; Hobbs to Hutchins, 15 November 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Hobbs, 16 November 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Bertha Kutschke to Hutchins, 22 November 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Hopkins, Cornelia R. to Hutchins, 2 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Eggert to Hutchins, 27 September 1917, Box 11, University of Michigan Board of Regents Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Regents Papers).Google Scholar

¹⁵ Sullivan, Dennis P. to Hutchins, 26 November 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Bulkley, to Hutchins, , 3 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Bulkley, 9 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Bulkley, 13 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins, to Sullivan, Dennis P., 6 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Ward, Robert D., “The Origin and Activities of the National Security League, 1914–1919“, Mississippi Valley Historical Review 47 (June 1960): 51–65; Smith, , Harry Burns Hutchins, 186–87; Hutchins, to Sullivan, , 6 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; “Cramton Asks Sift of University of Michigan Pro-Ally Plea,” Detroit Free Press, 14 April 1916.Google Scholar

¹⁸ “May Censor University of Michigan Memorial Signers,” Detroit News, 10 January 1917.Google Scholar

¹⁹ “University Professors Resent Koehler's Act,” Detroit News. 12 January 1917.Google Scholar

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²¹ Ibid.; “Prof. Reeves Attacks Koehler Resolution,” Detroit News Tribune, 14 January 1917.Google Scholar

²² Clements, to Claude, H. Van Tyne, 18 April 1916, Box 1, Claude, H. Van Tyne Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Van Tyne Papers).Google Scholar

²³ Claude, H. Van Tyne, “Letter to the editor,” New York Times, 4 May 1916.Google Scholar

²⁴ American entry into the war culminated the increasing support for the Allied cause at Michigan, including the beginning of voluntary military drill on campus and lectures organized by Hobbs arguing for military preparedness. Peckham, Making of the University of Michigan, 141–42; Gruber, , Mars and Minerva, 46–80; Willis Rudy, The Campus and a Nation in Crisis: From the American Revolution to Vietnam (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996), 104–20.Google Scholar

²⁵ Fletcher to Sawyer, Walter Hume, 15 April 1917, Box 3, Walter, H. Sawyer Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Sawyer Papers); Marwil, History of Ann Arbor, 97.Google Scholar

²⁶ Orton was a wealthy New York lawyer. Smith, Shirley called the organization of alumni “the most far-reaching” of Hutchins’ accomplishments, and Wilcox identified the irony in the power that they developed. Smith, Harry Burns Hutchins, 218; Wilcox, , “World War I,” 80; Orton to Fellow Alumnus, 26 August 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

²⁷ Clements to Van Tyne, 22 September 1917, Box 1, Van Tyne Papers.Google Scholar

²⁸ One student, Cannon, Laura, was unable to remember any of the specifics until after she learned of the statements of her classmates. Another first stated that he had no recollection of Eggert's comments but then changed his testimony when approached again. Cannon to Hobbs, 19 September 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers; Cannon to Hobbs, 30 August 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers; Cole, J. Herbert to Hobbs, , 22 September 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers; Roberta Deam to Hobbs, 14 August 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers; Faith Muller to Hobbs, 22 August 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers; Hobbs to Hutchins, , 15 September 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers; Hobbs to Hutchins, 18 September 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers.Google Scholar

²⁹ Eggert, to Hutchins, , 27 September 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers; Eggert to Hutchins, 10 October 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers.Google Scholar

³⁰ Other than the appearance of Eggert, Hobbs, and Scholl; a newspaper report that Eggert intended to read a prepared statement; and Eggert's inability to confront his student accusers, no verifiable details of the meeting remain. Proceedings of the Board of Regents, University of Michigan (1914–1917), 5; Hutchins to Bulkley, 9 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Wilcox, “World War I,” 63; “Prof. Eggert, C. on the Carpet Before Board,” Ann Arbor Daily News, 12 October 1917; Eggert to Hutchins, 16 October 1917, Box 4, Hutchins Papers; Smith, , Harry Burns Hutchins, 198.Google Scholar

³¹ Proceedings of the Board of Regents, University of Michigan (1914–17), 9.Google Scholar

³² Eggert to Hutchins, Harry B., 16 October 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Lucius L. Hubbard to C.E. Eggert, 2 November 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

³³ Hubbard to Eggert, 2 November 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

³⁴ Hutchins to Eggert, 29 December 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

³⁵ Hutchins to EL. Bliss, 26 October 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

³⁶ Peckham, Making of the University of Michigan, 146.Google Scholar

³⁷ Tyne, Van to Paxson, Frederic L., 12 April 1918, Box 2, Van Tyne Papers.Google Scholar

³⁸ Hutchins privately accused all but Ficken of being pro-German. Orton to Hutchins, 25 March 1918, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Orton, 18 April 1918, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Orton to Hutchins, 21 May 1918, Box 3, Sawyer Papers; Harry Bodman to Hutchins, 1 April 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Fletcher, Frank W., 27 May 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers; Wilcox, “World War I”; Proceedings of the Board of Regents, University of Michigan (1917–20), 159.Google Scholar

³⁹ Florer, to Smith, Shirley W., 7 March 1918, Box 14, Papers, Hutchins; Florer, Warren W., “Letter to the editor,” Christian Science Monitor, 7 September 1918, Box 1, Florer Papers; Hutchins to Frank W. Fletcher, 15 August 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Hutchins, to Bulkley, , 6 May 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

⁴¹ It was difficult for removed faculty to continue their careers, although Weigand was able to do so after a short period as a riveter and clerical worker. Eggert obtained a high school teaching position. Florer sold insurance, and Dieterle worked in a family business. Ficken's future remains unknown. Wilcox, , “World War I”; Weigand, Hermann J. and Schmidt, Henry J., “Interview with Weigand, Hermann J. (1892–1985),” in Teaching German in America: Prolegomena to a History, ed. Neseler, David P., Lohnes, Walter F. W., and Nollendorfs, Valters (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, published for Monatshefte, 1988), 285–92.Google Scholar

⁴² Associate professors and professors were considered “permanent,” while instructors and assistant professors were under fixed-length contracts. Assistant professors were typically employed on three-year contracts, but Florer's and Dieterle's were reduced to one year at the outset of the war. Boucke was forced to return to Germany to resume his career. Wilcox, “World War I”; Orton to Hutchins, 21 May 1918, Box 3, Sawyer Papers.Google Scholar

⁴³ Diekhoff accused others, including Max Winkler of the German Department, but all were permanent and were retained. Orton to Hutchins, 30 September 1917, Box 13, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Orton, 28 February 1918, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Diekhoff to Orton, 1 May 1915, Box 3, Sawyer Papers; Hutchins to Orton, 18 April 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Olds, J.E. to Hutchins, 16 October 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ “War Strife in Ann Arbor,” Indianapolis News, 1 November 1917.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Florer, Warren W., untitled document, Box 1, Florer Papers.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Diekhoffto Orton, 1 May 1915, Box 3, Sawyer Papers.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Hutchins, to Orton, , 4 December 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Superintendent of Grounds to U.S. Marshal, 26 October 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Parker, John C. to Hutchins, Harry B., 2 November 1917, Box 14, Papers, Hutchins; Mortimer, E. Cooley to Hutchins, 9 November 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Daniel Quick to Hutchins, 31 October 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Ruthven, to Reighard, Jacob E., 2 April 1918, Box 8, Jacob, E. Reighard Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Reighard Papers). See also Ruthven to Reighard, 24 April 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Koelz, Walter, “Discussions Relative to European War,” 26 April 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Ruthven, to Reighard, , 28 April 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Reighard to Coker, R.E., 24 May 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Coker to Reighard, 26 May 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Reighard to Coker, 24 June 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Reighard to Koelz, 25 June 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Coker to Reighard, 24 October 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Reighard to Coker, R.E., 8 January 1919, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Jacob Reighard to Koelz, 15 January 1919, Box 8, Reighard Papers.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Hutchins, to Orton, , 28 February 1918, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Cooley, Mortimer E. to Orton, 26 June 1918, Box 15, Papers, Hutchins. Proceedings of the Board of Regents, University of Michigan (1917–20), 245; Wilcox, “World War I”; Smith, , Harry Burns Hutchins, 200.Google Scholar

⁵² Cooley to Orton, 2 April 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

⁵³ Cooley to Orton, 26 June 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Cooley, to Hutchins, , 31 July 1919, Box 9, University of Michigan College of Engineering Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Engineering Papers); Gore to Bates, Henry M., 28 February 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Edson Sunderland to Bates, 7 March 1918, Box 1, Henry Moore Bates Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Bates Papers); Aigler, Ralph W. to Bates, 10 April 1918, Box 1, Bates Papers.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ “Warns of Anarchy Here,” Baltimore Sun, 24 March 1918; Hutchins to Chase Osborn, 9 April 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Osborn, 9 April 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Kustermann was likely one of the instructors warned to avoid living with the Aliens for fear of bringing suspicion upon themselves. Allen, M. to Müller-Liebenwalde, Julie, Tenderness and Turmoil, 196–98; Angoff, Charles, “The Higher Learning Goes to War,” American Mercury 11 (June 1927): 177–91.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Parker, to Hutchins, , 12 June 1918, Emil Lorch Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan; Hutchins to Bulkley, 15 March 1918, Box 14, Hutchins Papers. Parker did not identify the American Protective League (APL) by name. The APL was organized with the approval of the Justice Department to help supplement its efforts to defeat disloyalty. Branches were organized in 650 towns. Joan M. Jensen, Price of Vigilance (Chicago: McNally, Rand, 1968).Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Bates to Hutchins, 13 April 1918, Box 1, Bates Papers; Hutchins to Bates, 17 April 1918, Box 1, Bates Papers; Van Tyne to Clements, 29 April 1918, Box 2, Van Tyne Papers.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Tyne, Van to Clements, , 29 April 1918, Box 2, Van Tyne Papers; Van Tyne to Turner, E.R., 14 April 1918, Box 2, Van Tyne Papers; Van Tyne to Turner, 7 May 1918, Box 2, Van Tyne Papers.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Eggert to Lovejoy, Arthur O., 1 January 1918, Box 24, Arthur, O. Lovejoy Papers, Special Collections, Milton, S. Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University (hereafter cited as Lovejoy Papers); Theophil Hildebrandt to Martha J. Hildebrandt, 1 September 1919, Box 1, Theophil Henry Hildebrandt Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Hildebrandt Papers); J.A. Mosenfelder to Hutchins, 4 December 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Allen, M. to Müller-Liebenwalde, Julie, 7 August 1919, Tenderness and Turmoil, 196–98.Google Scholar

⁶² Tyne, Van to McElroy, Robert M., 29 November 1918, Box 2, Van Tyne Papers. Diekhoff had previously accused Scott of being pro-German as part of his correspondence with Orton.Google Scholar

⁶³ Stoddard, Lothrop and Frank, Glenn, Stakes of the War: Summary of the Various Problems, Claims and Interests of the Nations at the Peace Table (New York: Century, 1918); Van Tyne to Aydelotte, 11 November 1918, Box 2, Papers, Van Tyne; Aydelotte to Van Tyne, 18 November 1918, Box 2, Papers, Van Tyne; Tyne, Van to Aydelotte, 24 November 1918, Box 2, Papers, Van Tyne; Claude, H. Van Tyne, “Letter to the editor,” Michigan Daily, 24 November 1918, Box 2, Papers, Van Tyne; Tyne, Van to McElroy, Robert, 29 November 1918, Box 2, Papers, Van Tyne; Aydelotte to Van Tyne, 2 December 1918, Box 2, Papers, Van Tyne; Tyne, Van to Aydelotte, 7 December 1918, Box 2, Van Tyne Papers. For more on textbook controversies, see Joseph Moreau, Schoolbook Nation: Conflicts over American History Textbooks from the Civil War to the Present (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003), 175–218.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Gruber, , Mars and Minerva, 118–62, 238–44.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Allen, M. to Müller-Liebenwalde, Julie, 7 August 1919, Tenderness and Turmoil, 198.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Cooley, to Hutchins, , 31 July 1919, Box 9, Engineering Papers. Minne Allen indicated that a third faculty member received the same treatment, although research was unable to identify the third person. Allen, M. to Müller-Liebenwalde, Julie, 7 August 1919, Tenderness and Turmoil, 196–98.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Allen, Edward S., Freedom in Iowa: The Role of the Iowa Civil Liberties Union (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1977), xv.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Cooley, Ziwet to, 5 August 1919, Box 13, Regents Papers.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Allen, Edward S. to Hutchins, , 5 August 1919, Box 13, Regents Papers; Ziwet to Cooley, 5 August 1919, Regents Papers; Allen, M. to Müller-Liebenwalde, Julie, 12 August 1919, Tenderness and Turmoil, 202.Google Scholar

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⁷³ Allen, was given until the end of the year, rather than end of the term, but any terminal contract proved unacceptable. Ibid., xv.Google Scholar

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⁷⁵ Hutchins, to Cooley, , 6 October 1919, Box 18, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Allen was forced to leave his wife and three children, including a newborn named after Ziwet, in Ann Arbor for the remainder of the semester. In 1921, after a year in West Virginia, he moved his family to Ames, Iowa, and joined the faculty at Iowa State College, on which he served until 1985. He was an active member in the AAUP, the founder of the Iowa Civil Liberties Union, and an advocate for pacifist and civil liberties causes. Minne joined him in many of these activities and, having been educated at the University of Berlin, served as an assistant professor of sociology at Iowa State until state nepotism laws precluded her continued appointment. Edward Allen was one of the few faculty members removed from the University of Michigan to resume a scholarly career in the United States, joining Weigand and Marckwardt. Although not definitive, their resignations in lieu of public protests appear to have aided their ability to continue in faculty positions. Certainly Allen and Marckwardt left the institution without the attention surrounding Eggert and others. Weigand resigned his position, which might be seen as an alternative to both the “Ely model” and the “Beemis [sic] confrontation model,” as termed by Barrow, Clyde W., who drew on Mary, O. Furner's work. Richard, T. Ely shifted from principled socialism to pragmatic career advancement when his academic freedom was challenged and was thus able keep his position. Edward, W. Bemis publicly rebutted his accusers and forfeited his academic standing. Allen, Weigand, and Marckwardt neither renounced their politics nor abandoned their causes; rather, they left the institution without public protest and maintained careers. Allen, E., Freedom in Iowa; University Archives, “Edward Switzer Allen,” Iowa State University Library, http://www.lib.iastate.edu/spcl/exhibits/150/template/allen.html; Barrow, Clyde W., Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894–1928 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 188–89; Furner, Mary O., Advocacy and Objectivity: A Crisis in the Professionalization of American Social Science, 1865–1905 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1975).Google Scholar

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⁷⁹ Marckwardt accepted a position at the public college in Detroit that would become Wayne State University; Proceedings of the Board of Regents, University of Michigan (1917–20), 704.Google Scholar

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⁸¹ Hobbs, William H., Michigan Daily, 19 January 1921; “Wise Demands Hobbs’ Proof,” Detroit News, 27 January 1921; “Rabbi Demands Hobbs Prove It,” Detroit Free Press, 27 January 1921.Google Scholar

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⁸⁵ Gruber, , Mars and Minerva, 130.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Hutchins, to Brown, L. Ames, Box 14, Papers, Hutchins. Michigan faculty appeared to play relatively little role in the CPI due to their other commitments. Faculty from the University of Illinois were most well-represented among the CPI work, with Mock and Larson also specifically noting faculty from the Universities of Minnesota, Chicago, and Wisconsin as well as Columbia and Princeton Universities. Mock and Larson, Words That Won the War, 160. See also Stephen Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines: Democracy, Nationalism, and the Committee on Public Information (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980).Google Scholar

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¹²¹ Reighard specifically noted that most institutions, including Michigan, were not adhering to the statement's principles. Reighard to R.E. Coker, 24 June 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers.Google Scholar

¹²² Smith, , Harry Burns Hutchins, 187. For materials on William Bohn's “retirement,” see folders 22, 24, 30, and 31, Box 1, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

¹²³ Hobbs, to Hutchins, , 2 December 1915, Box 1, Hobbs Papers.Google Scholar

¹²⁴ Wilcox speculated that the attention garnered by Columbia's dismissals may have informed Hutchins’ actions. Wilcox, “World War I,” 67.Google Scholar

¹²⁵ Allen, M. to Müller-Liebenwalde, Julie, 7 August 1919, Tenderness and Turmoil, 196–98.Google Scholar

¹²⁶ Cooley, to Ziwet, , 3 October 1919, Box 18, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

¹²⁷ Gruber, , Mars and Minerva, 174.Google Scholar

¹²⁸ With Koelz's loyalty in doubt, Reighard wrote that there was “practically no chance of finding academic employment. Dean Lloyd tells me that nearly every inquiry that reaches him about graduate students raises questions of their loyalty.” Reighard to Koelz, 25 June 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers.Google Scholar

¹²⁹ Wilcox, , “World War I”; Hobbs, William H., “The University in War Service,” in The University of Michigan: An Encyclopedic Survey, ed. Shaw, Wilfred B. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1942), 1:194–203; Smith, Harry Burns Hutchins, 198–200; Peckham, Making of the University of Michigan, 145–47.Google Scholar

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