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“Kids Know What They Are Doing”: Peer-Led Sex Education in New York City

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 November 2019

Lisa M. F. Andersen
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Abstract

The reasons for peer education's ascendance as a core pedagogy in sex education are as much historical as they are reasonable or ethical. This article traces the history of peer-led sex education from the 1970s to the 1990s against the backdrop of New York City's financial ruin, social unrest, and a public health crisis. Starting with an analysis of the Student Coalition for Relevant Sex Education's Peer Information Project, founded in 1974, it investigates the application of new pedagogical techniques, the interplay between pedagogy and bureaucracy, and the transformation of school culture. Peer education thrived when educators and activists agreed that young people were more likely to accept advice from other young people, a reasonable contention that was nonetheless underassessed. Yet peer education's least intriguing attribute proved to be its most important characteristic: it could be quickly and inexpensively enacted. When HIV/AIDS began to decimate New York City's adolescent population, and the Board of Education proved slow and contradictory in its actions, the city turned to peer education, henceforth coupling the concepts of sex education and peer education.

Keywords

sex educationpeer educationNew York CityHIV/AIDS educationstudent activismpedagogy
Type
Articles
Information
History of Education Quarterly , Volume 59 , Issue 4 , November 2019 , pp. 501 - 527
Copyright
Copyright © History of Education Society 2019

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References

1 William J. Hertz to Samuel Polatnick, Sept. 12, 1974, “Sex Education and Referral Service for High School Students in New York City,” Board of Education of the City of New York Grant 07300500, 1973 June 22 – 1975 September 30, Ford Foundation Grants A-B, Microfilm Reel 1177, Ford Foundation Records, Rockefeller Archive Center, Sleepy Hollow, NY (hereafter cited as Sex Education Grant).

2 Unpublished manuscript, Precis, c. 1973, 8, Sex Education Grant; Maude Parker, Memo on Publicity and the Family Living/Sex Education Peer Information Services 1973–1974, c. 1974, Sex Education Grant. On peer education's trendiness, see National Commission on Resources for Youth, New Roles for Youth in the School and Community (New York: Citation Press, 1974).

3 For example, in a JSTOR search of the term “peer education,” fifteen of the first twenty-five results have sex education as their subject. The runners up—drug education and conflict mediation—have significant overlap. For the pedagogy's pervasiveness in sex education, see Kim, Caron R. and Free, Caroline, “Recent Evaluations of the Peer-Led Approach in Adolescent Sexual Health Education: A Systematic Review,” International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 34, no. 2 (June 2008), 89–96CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

4 For a summary of the student rights movement, see Nicholas Pileggi, “Revolutionaries Who Have to Be Home by 7:30,” New York Times, March 16, 1969, SM26; and Graham, Gael, Young Activists: American High School Students in the Age of Protest (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2006), 70Google Scholar, 74, 121, 124.

5 Precis, 5, 3; and Unpublished manuscript, “History of the Student Coalition for Relevant Sex Education,” c. 1973, Sex Education Grant.

6 Jeffrey Moran describes how “sex education by the early 1960s was virtually moribund.” See Moran, Jeffrey, Teaching Sex: The Shaping of Adolescence in the 20th Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 160Google Scholar; Moran also describes the rise of SIECUS, 165. On “plumbing” lessons, see Zimmerman, Jon, Too Hot to Handle: A Global History of Sex Education (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), 85Google Scholar. Some scholars describe the 1970s as an empty space bridged by two rounds of highly effective conservative opposition in the late 1960s and early 1980s. See Irvine, Janice M., Talk About Sex: The Battles Over Sex Education in the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002)Google Scholar. My position is closer to that of Peter Scales, who describes sex education moving between school and clinic venues in “Sex Education in the '70s and '80s: Accomplishments, Obstacles and Emergency Issues,” Family Relations 30 no. 4 (Oct. 1981), 558. For an explanation of the conservative backlash that underwrote the decline, see Mehlman, Natalia, “Sex Ed… and the Reds? Reconsidering the Anaheim Battle over Sex Education, 1962–1969,” History of Education Quarterly 47, no. 2 (May 2007), 203–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Conklin, Kurt, “’We Can't Let Chicago Outdo Us, Can We?: Sex Education and Desegregation in New York City's Public Schools,” History of Education Quarterly 53, no. 4 (Nov. 2013), 335CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Freeman, Susan K., Sex Goes to School: Girls and Sex Education Before the 1960s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008)Google Scholar; and Moran, Teaching Sex, 169–185.

8 Petrzela, Natalia Mehlman, Classroom Wars: Language, Sex, and the Making of Modern Political Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 184CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The first commercial publication of Our Bodies, Ourselves was path-breaking for how it foregrounds women writers’ investigations of under-studied, under-appreciated, and personal experiences related to women's bodies and medical issues; Boston Women's Health Book Collective, Our Bodies, Ourselves (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973).

9 Luker, Kristen, When Sex Goes to School: Warring Views on Sex—and Sex Education—Since the Sixties (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006)Google Scholar; and Zimmerman, Too Hot to Handle. For the claim that sex education was less transformed than expanded, see Moran, Teaching Sex, 205.

10 Kennedy, Asta M., “Teen Pregnancy: An Issue for Schools,” Phi Delta Kappan 68, no. 10 (June 1987), 733Google Scholar. For an example drawn from the period in this study, see Hedgepeth, Evonne M. and Helmick, John S., Teaching About Sexuality and HIV: Principles and Methods for Effective Education (New York: New York University Press, 1996), 217Google Scholar. For examples of how widely the idea that students learn best from other students continues to circulate, see “Why Peer Education,” Peer Education Institute, http://peereducationinstitute.org/; and Steph Auteri, “Why We Need to Trust Teens to Teach Each Other Sex Ed,” April 26, 2017, VICE.com, https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/ywmppg/why-we-need-to-trust-teens-to-teach-each-other-sex-ed. The matter of program assessment is extremely complicated in sex education, because success can be measured in increased sexual knowledge or attitude, but these attributes do not necessarily assure healthy sexual behaviors. Nor does a benefit from instruction necessarily remain over time. The conditions necessary for assessment—establishing a control group, determining whether knowledge/behavior is due to the single variable of education or something else entirely, and gathering posteducation information on students—are all fraught with ethical and procedural difficulties. Some reviews of peer-led sex education studies indicate that such programs do not mitigate rates of STIs or result in greater condom use; see Kim and Free, “Recent Evaluations of the Peer-Led Approach,” 89–96.

11 This summary account is a synthesis of material drawn from monthly reports, a number of which are cited individually below.

12 Madeline Oberle, quoted in Georgia Dullea, “Teen-Agers Offer Information on Sex,” New York Times, Nov. 15, 1973, 52.

13 Pat Hanson, Monthly Progress Report for Adlai Stevenson High School, May 1974, Sex Education Grant.

14 Michael Carrera to Susan Berresford, Adrienne Germain, and Richard Lacey, c. April 1974, Sex Education Grant.

15 Irwin Tobin to Susan Berresford, Aug. 13, 1974, Sex Education Grant; M. Drexler, Monthly Report for Erasmus High School, Dec. 1974, Sex Education Grant; S. Gershowitz, Monthly Report for Thomas Jefferson High School, Dec. 1974, Sex Education Grant; Martha Drexler, Monthly Progress Report for Benjamin Franklin High School, Oct. 1974, Sex Education Grant; and M. Drexler, Monthly Report for Cleveland High School, Dec. 1974, Sex Education Grant.

16 Adrienne Germain, interview by Rebecca Sharpless, June 19–20 and Sept. 25, 2003, 43–53, Population and Reproductive Health Oral History Project, Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College, Northampton, MA.

17 Richard A. Lacey to Edward J. Meade Jr., Sex Education and Referral Service, July 19, 1973, Sex Education Grant.

18 Jerry Cioffi, Monthly Progress Report for Flushing High School, Dec. 1974, Sex Education Grant; and Pat Hanson, Monthly Progress Report for Flushing High School, May 1974, Sex Education Grant.

19 Pat Hanson to Anne Welbourne, Monthly Progress Report, March and April 1974, Sex Education Grant.

20 Ann Welbourne, Progress Report, Sept. 1973, Sex Education Grant.

21 Michael Carrera to Susan Berresford, Report—Confidential, June 21, 1974, Sex Education Grant.

22 Michael Carrera to Susan Berresford, Adrienne Germain, and Richard Lacey, A Snapshot View of the Schools, c. April 1974, Sex Education Grant.

23 Pat Hanson, Monthly Progress Report for Martin Van Buren High School, May 1974, Sex Education Grant.

24 Hanson to Welbourne, Monthly Progress Report, May 1974, Sex Education Grant.

25 M. Drexler, Monthly Report for Stuyvesant High School, Dec. 1974, Sex Education Grant.

26 Hanson to Welbourne, Monthly Progress Report, May 1974, Sex Education Grant

27 “The Pregnant Schoolgirl,” Time, April 7, 1961, 46.

28 Lynn Silver, quoted in Caroline Lund, “High School Women Take on Board of Ed,” The Militant 35, no. 2, May 28, 1971, 5. The Board of Education passed a 1967 resolution that promised education for new mothers, but not necessarily in the school they had previously attended; Conklin, “We Can't Let Chicago Outdo Us, Can We?” 335.

29 Michael Carrera to Susan Berresford, Revised Draft Outline for Monitoring Board of Education Peer Leadership Program, Oct. 2, 1973, Sex Education Grant.

30 See Lovell, Kera, “‘Girls are Equal Too’: Education, Body Politics, and the Making of Teenage Feminism,” Gender Issues 33, no. 2 (June 2016), 71–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31 In addition to the critical precedent of 1954's Brown v. Board of Education, see Danns, Dionne, “Chicago High School Students’ Movement for Quality Public Education, 1966–1971,” Journal of African American History 88, no. 2 (Spring 2003), 138–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ravitch, Diane, The Great School Wars: A History of the New York City Public Schools, (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 267–79Google Scholar; Laurie Gwen Shapiro, “How a Thirteen-Year-Old Girl Smashed the Gender Divide in American High Schools,” The New Yorker, Jan. 26, 2019, https://www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/how-a-thirteen-year-old-girl-smashed-the-gender-divide-in-american-high-schools; Graham, Young Activists; and Schumaker, Kathryn, Troublemakers: Students’ Rights and Racial Justice in the Long 1960s (New York: New York University Press, 2019)Google Scholar.

32 On the Board of Education protests, see Hariette Surovell, “Hariette Surovell Anthology,” Exquisite Corpse, Jan. 11, 2008, http://www.corpse.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=653. On the speak-out, see SCRSE newsletter (April 27, 1973); and Elizabeth Fishel, “A Liberated Mind in a Healthy Body,” New York Magazine, Dec. 20, 1971, 107–108.

33 Michael Carrera to Susan Berresford, Adrienne Germain, and Richard Lacey, memo, Peer Program Report #1, Nov. 5, 1973, Sex Education Grant.

34 Terry Becker et al. to Irwin Tobin, Nov. 14, 1973, Sex Education Grant.

35 Susan Berresford to The File, memo on Conversation with Irwin Tobin, Dec. 14, 1973, Sex Education Grant.

36 Michael Carrera to Susan Berresford, Adrienne Germain, and Richard Lacey, memo, Peer Sex Information Project, Feb. 20, 1974, Sex Education Grant.

37 Irwin Tobin to Susan Berresford, Adrienne Germain, and Richard Lacey, memo, May 8, 1974, Sex Education Grant.

38 On student expectations, see Notes on Meeting with Ford Foundation, July 7, 1972, Sex Education Grant; and Hariette Surovell, Proposal: Birth Control and Venereal Disease Information and Referral Project in New York City Public High Schools, Jan. 1972, 9, Sex Education Grant.

39 Dullea, “Teen-Agers Offer Information on Sex,”52.

40 Michael A. Carrera to Susan Berresford and Adrienne Germain, memo, October-November Report, Dec. 2, 1974, Sex Education Grant.

41 Adrienne Germain, memo regarding meeting held 4/26/74, April 29, 1974, Sex Education Grant.

42 Ann Welbourne, Monthly Progress Report, April 1974, Sex Education Grant; and Germain, Memo on 4/26/74 meeting, Sex Education Grant.

43 Germain, Memo on 4/26/74 meeting, Sex Education Grant.

44 Michael Carrera to Susan Berresford and Adrienne Germain, January Report, Feb. 5, 1975, Sex Education Grant.

45 Irwin Tobin to Susan Berresford, Adrienne Germain, and Richard Lacey, memo, May 8, 1974, Sex Education Grant.

46 Michael A. Carrera to Susan Berresford, memo, June 19, 1974, Sex Education Grant.

47 Sharon Katz to Joan Dunlop, c. July 1974, Sex Education Grant.

48 Michael A. Carrera to Susan Berresford and Adrienne Germain, February Report, March 11, 1975, Sex Education Grant.

49 Welbourne, Ann, Drexler, Martha, Hanson, Patrician, and Parker, Maude I., “A Family Living/Sex Information Peer Group Project,” Family Coordinator 24, no. 1 (Jan. 1975), 100–101CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

50 Michael Carrera to Susan Berresford and Adrienne Germain, September Report, Oct. 7, 1974, Sex Education Grant; Joan M. Dunlop to Sharon Katz, Aug. 8, 1974, Sex Education Grant; and Sharon Katz to Joan M. Dunlop, c. July 1974, Sex Education Grant.

51 Phillips-Fein, Kim, Fear City: New York's Fiscal Crisis and the Rise of Austerity Politics (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2017), 221Google Scholar.

52 Maude I. Parker to Susan Berresford, April 25, 1975, Sex Education Grant; and Mel Warren to Irwin Tobin, March 24, 1975, Sex Education Grant.

53 Maude I. Parker to Susan Berresford, June 12, 1975, Sex Education Grant.

54 Alfred F. Moran to Interested Agencies and Individuals, memo, Nov. 19, 1975, Sex Education Grant.

55 Maude Parker to Susan Berresford, Nov. 26, 1975, Sex Education Grant.

56 Maude Parker to Susan Berresford, June 18, 1975, Sex Education Grant; Jim Rogers to Ford Foundation, June 4, 1975, Sex Education Grant; Irwin Tobin, Rationale for Continuation of the Family Living & Sex Education Peer Information Project, April 30, 1975, Sex Education Grant.

57 “The Very First ACT UP Youth Brigade Report,” Oct. 23, 1989, folder 26, box 32, AIDS and Adolescents Network of New York Records, New York Public Library Archives & Manuscripts (hereafter cited as AIDS and Adolescents Network). See also Jeffrey Fennelly interview by Sarah Schulman, Jan. 4, 2010, ACT UP Oral History Project, 31, http://www.actuporalhistory.org/interviews/images/fennelly.pdf.

58 For example, Concerned Parents for Educational Accountability, Proposed Itinerary for City Wide School Strike, c. Oct. 1992, Children of the Rainbow folder, 1992–1993, box 8, AIDS and Adolescents Network. In response, see ACT UP and YELL, “They're Not Just in Houston!” folder, Children of the Rainbow, 1992–1993, box 8, AIDS and Adolescents Network.

59 Lei Chou interview by Sarah Schulman, May 5, 2003, ACT UP Oral History Project, 23, http://www.actuporalhistory.org/interviews/images/chou.pdf; and Gilbert Elbaz, “Adolescent Activism for Postmodern HIV/AIDS Education: A New Social Movement,” Urban Review 29, no. 3 (Sept. 1997), 160. For an account that categorizes the public response to these zaps a bit differently, see Felicia R. Lee, “In Age of AIDS, Sex and Drugs Are Classroom Topics,” New York Times, Dec. 26, 1989, B1.

60 Fennelly, interview, 28.

61 Journal of the Board of Education of the City of New York, vol. 1 (New York: Board of Education, 1991), 285; and Elbaz, “Adolescent Activism,” 150.

62 Teenagers were eligible to participate in trials after 1989 but were generally underrepresented and seldom recruited; Kate Barnhart, “Adolescent Underrepresentation in Clinical AIDS Research,” in The Gender Politics of HIV/AIDS in Women: Perspectives on the Pandemic in the United States, ed. Nancy Goldstein and Jennifer L. Manlowe (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 78. On the Women's Caucus's fight to change the CDC's definition of AIDS, see Carroll, Tamar W., Mobilizing New York: AIDS, Antipoverty, and Feminist Activism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 152CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

63 “ACT-UP Testimony: Chancellor's Expense Budget,” Feb. 21, 1990, 1–4, folder 26, box 32, AIDS and Adolescents Network.

64 Larry Rohter, “School Workers Shown AIDS Film,” New York Times, Oct. 29, 1985, A1; Sara Rimer, “High School Course Is Shattering Myths About AIDS,” New York Times, March 5, 1986, B1; Reed, Sally, “AIDS in the Schools: A Special Report,” Phi Delta Kappan 67, no. 7 (March 1986), 498Google Scholar; and Journal of the Board of Education of the City of New York, vol. 1 (New York: Board of Education, 1987), 450–51. The program was called “Comprehensive Health Education Including Growing Healthy and Family Living Including Sex Education,” and was funded with $180,000 in state grants.

65 On San Francisco, see DiClemente, Ralph J. et al. , “Evaluation of School-Based AIDS Education Curricula in San Francisco,” Journal of Sex Research 26, no. 2 (May 1989), 190CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

66 Ward, Janie Victoria and Taylor, Jill McLean, “Sexuality Education for Immigrant and Minority Students: Developing a Culturally Appropriate Curriculum,” in Sexuality and the Curriculum: The Politics and Practices of Sexuality Education, ed. Sears, James T. (New York: Teachers College Press, 1992), 191Google Scholar; and Joseph Berger, “What Students Think About Condom Plan,” New York Times, Sept. 28, 1990, B1.

67 “Hotline on AIDS Is Aimed at the Teen-Ager,” New York Times, Sept. 4, 1988, 25.

68 Kate Barnhart, as cited in Ford, Michael Thomas, Voices of AIDS: Twelve Unforgettable People Talk about How AIDS Has Changed Their Lives (New York: Harper-Collins, 1995), 213Google Scholar.

69 Elbaz, “Adolescent Activism,” 160.

70 Jeffrey Fennelly, “Writing on the Wall of Plato's Cave: Education, Homophobia and AIDS,” Outweek, June 27, 1990, 66. See also “Topics to Include in an Effective AIDS Education Curriculum,” c. 1992, folder 17, box 195, AIDS and Adolescents Network; and List of Demands, “To effectively stem the rising rate of HIV infection…,” c. 1992, folder 17, box 195, AIDS and Adolescents Network.

71 Kate Barnhart, interview by Sarah Schulman, March 21, 2004, ACT UP Oral History Project, 11, http://www.actuporalhistory.org/interviews/images/barnhart.pdf.

72 We're Looking for New Members, folder 26, box 32, AIDS and Adolescents Network. Tom Rafferty, “AIDS Group Takes Protest to BOE,” (New York) Daily News, Nov. 19, 1991, reprinted within YELL Zine, no. 1 (1994) http://archive.qzap.org/index.php/Detail/Object/Show/object_id/187; and Barnhart, interview, 11.

73 Barnhart, interview, 12–13; and Barnhart, as cited in Ford, Voices of AIDS, 203.

74 Barnhart, interview, 2, 4.

75 Barnhart, as cited in Ford, Voices of AIDS, 204.

76 Barnhart, interview, 12.

77 “The Police Are Against Young People,” New York Times, April 18, 1993, 42.

78 Barnhart, interview, 1, 14–15.

79 New York City Board of Education, Expanded HIV/AIDS Program Implementation Guidelines and Current 9–12 Lessons, 1991, folder 4, box 8, AIDS and Adolescents Network; and Evaluation Proposal for Chancellor's Expanded HIV/AIDS Education Program Including Condom Availability, c. 1991, folder 4, box 8, AIDS and Adolescents Network.

80 HIV/AIDS Technical Assistance Project, Progress Report for 1992–1993, 3–4, AIDS and Adolescents Network; and Teri L. Lewis to Education Task Force Steering Committee, “First Draft ….,” intended for distribution to Carole Gressor, c. 1992, 4, folder 4, box 8, AIDS and Adolescents Network. Illustrating the complicated and sometimes compromising relationship between philanthropy and activism, BASE grants were funded by the Carter-Wallace company, which manufactured Trojan condoms.

81 On the condom distribution program's enactment, see Joseph Berger, “Desperation and Anger in Debate on Condoms,” New York Times, Feb. 7, 1991, B1.

82 Journal of the Board of Education of the City of New York, vol. 1 (1991), 289.

83 Lynnell Hancock and Jay Maeder, “Condom Plan Bars Parents,” (New York) Daily News, Sept. 12, 1991, 3.

84 Blair, Jill F. and Hein, Karen K., “Public Policy Implications of HIV/AIDS in Adolescents,” The Future of Children 4, No. 3 (Winter 1994), 76CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; and Simkin, Linda S. et al. , Evaluation of the HIV/AIDS Education Program/Including Condom Availability, 1990–1992 (Brooklyn, NY: New York City Board of Education, 1993)Google Scholar.

85 Jody P. Stoll, unpublished article, folder 10, box 13, AIDS and Adolescents Network.

86 Thomas Porton, “Daily Point of Light #1230,” Oct. 21, 1998, Points of Light, https://www.pointsoflight.org/awards/thomas-porton/.

87 Bob Zielory to AAN, survey response, Oct. 1992, folder 1, box 10, AIDS and Adolescents Network; and Silvia Atemany to Teri Lewis, Oct. 1992, folder 1, box 10, AIDS and Adolescents Network.

88 Joseph Berger, “Students’ Demand for Condoms Seems Limited but Steady,” New York Times, Jan. 30, 1992, A1; and Perry, Miranda, “Kids and Condoms: Parental Involvement in School Condom-Distribution Programs,” University of Chicago Law Review 63, no.2 (Spring 1996), 727CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

89 Journal of the Board of Education of the City of New York, vol. 1 (1991), 1122.

90 Josh Barbanel, “Condom Handouts Voided in Schools,” New York Times, Dec. 31, 1993, A1.

91 YELL, “Students’ Rights vs. Parental Opt-Out,” 1993, folder 5, box 8, AIDS and Adolescents Network.

92 On the 45,000 number, see YELL Zine, no. 1 (1994), 3.

93 This was Teri L. Lewis's persuasive assessment, expressed in a letter to Ramon C. Cortines, Oct. 31, 1993, folder 12, box 13, AIDS and Adolescents Network.

94 University of the State of New York, State Education Department, “A Compliance Review of HIV/AIDS Instruction in New York City Public Schools,” July 1993, 3, folder 4, box 8, AIDS and Adolescents Network.

95 Teri L. Lewis to Ramon Cortines, Oct. 18, 1993, folder 12, box 13, AIDS and Adolescents Network.

96 Teri L. Lewis, in HIV/AIDS Advisory Council transcript, Oct. 12, 1993, folder 4, box 8, AIDS and Adolescents Network.

97 Andrea Schlesinger to Teri L. Lewis, Dec. 27, 1993, folder 12, box 13, AIDS and Adolescents Network; and Carol A. Gresser to William Andrews, memo on student members, April 28, 1994, folder 2, box 14, AIDS and Adolescents Network.

98 Erica Zurer to Teri Lewis, March 18, 1994, folder 2, box 14, AIDS and Adolescents Network; and “Summary of BOE HIV/AIDS Council Actions,” March 7, 1994, folder 2, box 14, AIDS and Adolescents Network.

99 YELL Zine, no. 2 (1995), 6, http://archive.qzap.org/index.php/Detail/Object/Show/object_id/260.

100 On COPE, see Goldstein and Manlowe, The Gender Politics of HIV/AIDS in Women, 294–95; and Elbaz, “Adolescent Activism,” 145.

101 For example, see United in Anger: A History of ACT UP, directed by Jim Hubbard (New York: New York State Council on the Arts and the Ford Foundation, 2012), documentary film; How to Survive a Plague, directed by David France (New York: Public Square Films, 2013), documentary film; and Roth, Benita, The Life and Death of ACT UP/LA: Anti-AIDS Activism in Los Angeles from the 1980s to the 2000s (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

102 Jonathan Berger, as cited in Ann Powers, “Who Are These People, Anyway?” New York Times, April 29, 1998, G1. Advice for how to organize an HIV club or create a condom distribution program at school was the main focus of YELL Zine, no. 2.