∗ Born in 1859 in the village of Alella just outside Barcelona, Ferrer became a committed republican and freethinker before he was twenty. In exile in Paris during 1886–1901, he remained in close contact with Spanish revolutionaries, and established links with French educational and political radicals. Shortly after his return to Spain, he opened the Escuela Moderna in Barcelona in September 1901, a project made possible by the income Ferrer derived from property bequeathed to him by a former pupil and confidante (Ernestine Meunie) in Paris. Similar schools and radical centers were established throughout the peninsula, with early offshoots in South America. Implicated in an assassination attempt in 1906 on the life of Alfonso XIII, Ferrer was imprisoned until 1907, when, after his release was secured in part by widespread European publicity in his favor, he traveled the European capitals promoting the Spanish revolutionary cause, which he endeavored to link to his educational crusade by means of a Ligue Internationale pour l'Education Rationnelle de l'Enjance, with Anatole France as its honorary president. While visiting Barcelona in 1909, and for reasons which are still disputed, Ferrer became associated with the events of the socalled Tragic Week of late summer that year. His execution in October unleashed a protest movement on a massive and international scale, and brought him fame as a martyr to the cause of “rational” education. Modern Schools were set up in various locations in Europe and the Americas, though most (with the exception of the longlasting venture at Stelton, New Jersey) had disappeared by the mid-1920s. For full biographical details, see especially the works cited in footnote 1 below.Google Scholar

1. See esp. Avrich, P., The Modern School Movement: Anarchism and Education in the United States (Princeton, 1980); Solá, P. i Gussinyer, Educaciò i Moviment Libertaria a Catalunya (1901–1939) (Barcelona, 1980), pp. 83–143; de Vroede, M., “Francisco Ferrer et la Ligue Internationale pour l'Education Rationnelle de l'Enfance,” Paedagogica Historica, 19 (1979):278–295; Bookchin, M., The Spanish Anarchists: The Heroic Years, 1868–1936 (New York, 1977); Monès, J., Solà, P., Lazaro, L., Ferrer Guardia y la pedagogia libertaria: elementos para un debate (Barcelona, 1977); Boyd, C.P., “The Anarchists and Education in Spain, 1868–1909,” The Journal of Modem History, 68 (1976):125–172; Solà Gusiñer, P., Las escuelas racionalistas en Cataluña, 1909–39 (Barcelona, 1976); Reichert, W.O., Partisans of Freedom: A Study in American Anarchism (1976), ch. 5; Spring, J., A Primer of Libertarian Education (New York, 1975), and “Anarchism and Education: A Dissenting Tradition,” in Karier, , Spring, , Violas, , Roots of Crisis: American Education in the Twentieth Century (Chicago, 1973); Veysey, L., The Communal Experience: Anarchist and Mystical Counter-Cultures in America (New York, 1973); Pommanget, M., Les Grands Socialistes et l'Education: de Platon à Lénine (Paris, 1970); Ullman, J.C., The Tragic Week: a study of anticlericalism in Spain, 1875–1912 (Cambridge, Mass., 1968); Ferrer, Sol, La Vie et l'Oeuvre de Francisco Ferrer: Un Martyre au XX Siècle (Paris, 1962); Turin, Y., L'Education et l'Ecole en Espagne de 1874 à 1902 (Paris, 1959); Day, H. [psued.], Francisco Ferrer, 10 janv. 1859–13 oct. 1909, un précurseur (Paris-Bruxelles, 1959); Ferrer, Sol, Le Véritable Francisco Ferrer: D'après Des Documents Inédits (Paris, 1948); Orts-Ramos, A., Caravaca, F., Francisco Ferrer, Apóstol de la Razón (Barcelona, 1932). See also Archer, W., The Life, Trial, and Death of Francisco Ferrer (London, 1911); Abbott, L.D. (ed.), Francisco Ferrer: His Life, Work and Martyrdom (New York, 1910); Fromentin, A., La verità sull' opera di Francisco Ferrer (Bologna, 1910); McCabe, J., The Martyrdom of Ferrer (London, 1909); Gorle, F.H., The Life and Death of Francisco Ferrer (n.d., 1909?). I am grateful to Saville, Professor and Bellamy, Dr. of the Dictionary of Labour Biography for a copy of Saville's special note, “The Execution of Francisco Ferrer and the Labour Movement,” to appear in vol. 7 of the Dictionary (1984).Google Scholar

2. Avrich, , Modern School Movement, p. 129.Google Scholar

3. See Dommanget, , Les Grands Socialistes, ch. 15; Carr, R., Spain: 1808–1939 (Oxford, 1966), p. 442; Spring, , “Anarchism and Education,” p. 216.Google Scholar

4. Ferrer y Guardia, F., The Origin and Ideals of the Modern School (trans. McCabe, J., London, 1913), pp. 48–9; cf. Holmes, E., What Is and What Might Be (London, 1911).Google Scholar

5. Cf. Avrich, , Modern School Movement, pp. 281–2, and Ferrer's, Origin and Ideals, pp. 50–51. See also Williams, R., “Base and Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory,” in Dale, R., Esland, G., MacDonald, M. (eds.), Schooling and Capitalism: a Sociological Reader (London, 1976), p. 206; cf. Sarup, M., Education, State and Crisis: A Marxist Perspective (London, 1982), p. 11.Google Scholar

6. Origin and Ideals, p. 55.Google Scholar

7. Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (Birmingham), Unpopular Education: Schooling and Social Democracy in England since 1944 (London, 1981), p. 258 (my emphasis).Google Scholar

8. See De Vroede, M., “Francisco Ferrer et la Ligue Internationale,” pp. 288–90.Google Scholar

9. Spring, , “Anarchism and Education,” pp. 218–20, and A Primer of Libertarian Education, pp. 22–24; cf. Veysey, L., The Communal Experience, p. 57.Google Scholar

10. Maîtron, J., Histoire du Mouvement Anarchiste en France (1880–1914) (Paris, 1951), p. 330.Google Scholar

11. Entwistle, H.H., Antonio Gramsci: Conservative Schooling for Radical Politics (London, 1979), pp. 3–4; also his “The Political Education of Adults,” in Heater, D. and Gillespie, J.A. (eds.), Political Education in Flux (London, 1981), p. 235, which in part considers the instrumentality of a tradition liberal education and the extent to which “a good general education” can also embody a form of political education.Google Scholar

12. See Simon, B., “Contemporary Problems in Educational Theory,” Marxism Today, 20 (June 1976):174–7; Spring, , “Anarchism and Education,” p. 216. For development of the Marxist position, see for example Cagan, E., “Individualism, Collectivism and Radical Educational Reform,” Harvard Educational Review, 48, 2 (1978):227–266; Reynolds, D. and Sullivan, M., “Towards a New Sociology of Education,” in Barton, L., Mieghan, R. and Walker, S. (eds.), Schooling, Ideology and the Curriculum (Barcombe, Sussex, 1980), esp. pp. 182 ff.; and DeMaine, J., Contemporary Theories in the Sociology of Education (London, 1981).Google Scholar

13. Entwistle, , Antonio Gramsci, p. 56, quoting from one of Gramsci's prison letters.Google Scholar

14. Cf. Simon, B., “Education and the Right Offensive,” Marxism Today, 24 (Feb. 1980):13; for Marx's view, see The Bee Hive (21 August 1869).Google Scholar

15. Ullman, , The Tragic Week, p. 93; Joll, J., The Anarchists (London, 1964), p. 234; de Cleyre, Voltairine, Selected Works (New York, 1914), p. 339, cited in Perlin, T.M., “Anarchism and Idealism: Voltairine de Cleyre (1866–1912),” Labor History, 14 (1973):518.Google Scholar

16. See Lida, C., “Educación anarquista en la España del ochocientos,” Revista de Occidente, no. 97 (April 1971):41–2; Archer, , Life, Trial, and Death, p. 37; Ullman, , Tragic Week, p. 95. Also [F.P.] The Martyrdom of Francisco Ferrer (Liverpool, n.d., 1909?), p. 5, copy in Centre International de Recherches sur l'Anarchisme (CIRA), Geneva.Google Scholar

17. See “Francisco Ferrer Anarchiste,” La Brochure Mensuelle, no. 142 (Oct. 1934), for articles by Ferrer and Anselmo Lorenzo taken from La Huelga General and other sources; Ullman, pp. 100ff.; Romero Maura, J., “Terrorism in Barcelona and its Impact on Spanish Politics, 1904–1909,” Past and Present, no. 41 (Dec. 1968):141ff. Archer (p. 33) concluded that the Escuela Moderna “was unmistakably and avowedly a nursery of rebellious citizens,” and, according to Ullman, whatever the “limitations and doubts” as to personal influence, Ferrer's “long-range contribution to the creation of a revolutionary atmosphere must be recognized” (Tragic Week, p. 304).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

18. Ferrer, Sol, Le Véritable Francisco Ferrer, p. 65.Google Scholar

19. For example, see Abbott, L. (ed.), Francisco Ferrer, editorial preface; Ramos, Orts and Caravaca, , Francisco Ferrer, Apóstol de la Ranzón, p. 269; and Valois, G., “Une Nouvelle Mystification Dreyfusienne: L'affaire Ferrer en France,” Revue Critique des idées et des livres (Paris), 7 (Oct.-Dec. 1909):287. Also Véritable Francisco Ferrer, pp. 52ff.Google Scholar

20. See La Revue Socialiste, 50 (1909): 1050, which links this view to the then growing Catholic attacks on écoles laïques in France; Fromentin, , La verità sull'opera di Francisco Ferrer, p. 17. Translations from these and other French and Italian sources are my own, unless otherwise indicated.Google Scholar

21. Fleming, M., The Anarchist Way to Socialism: Elisée Reclus and Nineteenth-Century European Anarchism (London, 1979), p. 236, quoting from an address by Reclus; Véritable Francisco Ferrer, pp. 52–3. See also Maîtron, , Histoire, p. 235; Legrand, L., L'influence du positivisme dans l'oeuvre scolaire de Jules Ferry: les origines de la laïcité (Paris, 1961); Mclaren, A., “Revolution and Education in late 19th century France: the Early Career of Paul Robin,” History of Education Quarterly, 21(1981):334–5. According to Emma Goldman, Robin was “father of the Modern School” which Ferrer carried into Spain; see Heaford, W., “The History of the Modern Schools,” in Abbott, (ed.), Francisco Ferrer, p. 70.Google Scholar

22. See e.g. Yvetot, G. (secretary of the C.G.T.), “Le Monopole de l'Enseignement et le Socialisme,” Le Mouvement Socialiste, 6 (Third Series, Paris, 1910): 199–204. Cf. Singer, B.B., “Jules Ferry and the Laic Revolution in French Primary Education,” Paedagogica Historica, 15 (1975): 406–25.Google Scholar

23. As cited in Avrich, P., An American Anarchist. The Life of Voltairine de Cleyre (Princeton, 1978), p. 222.Google Scholar

24. Richmond, Al, A Long View from the Left: Memoirs of an American Revolutionary (Boston, 1973), p. 67; Avrich, , Modern School, p. 282.Google Scholar

25. Ward, G.H.B., The Truth About Spain (1st.edn., 1911), p. 134. Along with Heaford, Ward (of Sheffield) was one of Ferrer's closest English associates; for a biographical sketch, see vol. 7 of the Dictionary of Labour Biography, forthcoming. See also Wintsch, J., L'Ecole Ferrer: Un Essai D'Institution Ouvrière (Geneva, 1919), p. 10; Maîtron, , Histoire du Mouvement Anarchiste, pp. 324–335; Dommanget, , Les Grands Socialistes, chs. 14 and 15.Google Scholar

26. De Vroede, , pp. 280–90; Ullman, , Tragic Week, pp. 101–2. See also e.g. Saville, , “Execution of Francisco Ferrer;” Park, T.P., “The European Reaction to the Execution of Francisco Ferrer” (doctoral dissertation, Virginia, 1970); Hutchins, R., “Francisco Ferrer and the Modern School,” The Modem School (New York), 2 (July-Aug. 1915):91–3. In The Communal Experience (p. 81n.), Veysey describes Ferrer's educational thinking as “vague and amateurish,” while one contemporary account ( Valois, , “Une Mystification Dreyfusienne”: 279ff.) refers to a “philosophe inférieur” and “maladroit éducateur du peuple,” citing an anonymous witness of Ferrer's work in La Démocracie sociale, 23 (Oct. 1909).Google Scholar

27. “L'Enseignement primaire et le Prolétariat,” Le Mouvement Socialiste, 6 (Second Series, 1906): 216. Also L'Ecole Rénovée, 2, 1 (23 Jan. 1909); De Vroede, , pp. 288–93.Google Scholar

28. “Rational Education,” Freedom (London, August 1908):59; Le Mouvement Socialiste, p. 226. For the Paris group of the Ligue, social transformation also included the breaking down of “sexist attitudes” in early education, and hence its stress (in accordance with Ferrer's Escuela Moderna) on co-education of the sexes and the formation of an école normale mixte for aspiring teachers. See L'Ecole Rénovée (Paris), 2, 2 (May 1908):59.Google Scholar

29. Ferrer, , “The Renovation of the School,” from Boletín de la Escuela Moderna (New Series, May 1908), translated in Archer, , Life, Trial, and Death, pp. 84–88; with noticeable differences, this reappears in McCabe's, translation, Origin and Ideals, pp. 44–5, 53. See also De Vroede, , p. 282n, and Avrich, , An American Anarchist, p. 217, for a translation by Voltairine de Cleyre. Cf. Ferrer, Sol, Le Véritable Francisco Ferrer, pp. 180, and 65—for Rousseau as Ferrer's “maitre.” Google Scholar

30. “Renovation of the School,” p. 87; cf. L'Ecole Rénovée, 1, 1 (April 1908): 9 (“des hommes qui ne seront jamais attachés à rien“). McCabe's version (p. 52) refers to “men whose intellectual independence is their supreme power, which they will yield to none …” Google Scholar

31. Origin and Ideals, pp. 56, 8; and Boletín (May 1908), in Archer, p. 53.Google Scholar

32. “Rationalisme Humanitaire,” in Day, H., Francisco Ferrer… un précurseur, p. 60; this is a translation of an article written by Ferrer while in prision, which appeared in Renovación, 1, 19–20 (13 Oct., 1911). Cf. McCabe, , The Martyrdom of Ferrer, p. 52, and “The Reformed School,” Freedom (June 1908):41, where in a letter to Ferrer, the Anarchist Kropotkin urged a revitalized teaching of science and spoke of education as “the formation of the moral being, the active individual, full of initiative, enterprise, courage, freed from the timidity of thought which is the distinctive feature of your period …” Google Scholar

33. Normandy, G. and Lesueur, E., Ferrer, L'Homme et Son Oeuvre (Paris, 1909), p. 51; Dommanget, , Les Grands Socialistes, p. 383. See also Origin and Ideals, pp. 13ff.Google Scholar

34. Laisant, C.A., L'Education de demain (Paris, 2nd. edn., 1913), p. 12. It is the “rational” that is uppermost in the Escuela Moderna, and, as applied to education, the term is virtually interchangeable with “scientific.” Cf. Lorulot, A., “Un Grand Rationaliste,” in Day, H. (ed.), La Vie et L'Oeuvre de Sébastien Faure (Paris-Bruxelles, 1961), pp. 84–5: “It is the same principles that we find again at Barcelona and at Rambouillet, the same love of science, the same confidence in individual reason, an identical and integral respect for human personality …” Google Scholar

35. Origin and Ideals, pp. 59, 65–6, ibid., p. 12 (my emphasis).Google Scholar

36. Ferrer as cited in The Anarchist (Glasgow), 1, 34 (17 Jan. 1913): 2; and Day, H., Francisco Ferrer, L'Homme, La Escuela Moderne [sic]: ses idées, son idéal (Paris-Bruxelles, 1959), p. 15. Also Origin and Ideals, p. 15 Google Scholar

37. Origin and Ideals, pp. 20, 70. Cf. Veysey, , The Communal Experience, p. 78; Avrich, , Modern School Movement, pp. 295–6; and e.g. Hemmings, R., Children's Freedom: A. S. Neill and the Evolution of the Summer hill Idea (New York, 1973), pp. 88–9, 173–4. Schneider, K., “Ferrer et la Pédagogie Antiautoritaire,' CIRA: bulletin 22 (March 1971):5–6, notes that, while using a “neutral” education, Ferrer also wished to make children attentive to “lacunes” and “injustices” in society.Google Scholar

38. McCabe, , Martyrdom, p. 52; Abbott, (ed.), Francisco Ferrer, p. 83. See also Joll, , The Anarchists, p. 253.Google Scholar

39. Archer, , Life, Trial, and Death, pp. 39–49, 50–1ff. According to one twelve-year-old cited in the Boletín, “We can speak of the evils of society, such as religion, property, war and governments, not only because of the explanations of our teachers, but because we have arrived at an understanding of justice and truth.” (p. 58). Cf. Dommanget, , Les Grands Socialistes, p. 383.Google Scholar

40. Cf. Ullman, , Tragic Week, p. 102; De Vroede, pp. 285–6. In a contemporary account hostile to Ferrer, Valois (“Une Mystification Dreyfusienne” pp. 283–4) insists that Ferrer's only innovation in the Modern School “which has been so talked about without its being understood, was anarchist propaganda, more or less disguised under color of science and culture.” For Ward's sympathetic account, see note 25 above.Google Scholar

41. See e.g. Hobsbawm, E.J., Primitive Rebels. Studies in Archaic Forms of Social Movement in the 19th and 20th Centuries (New York, 1965 [1959]), pp. 81–86; Carr, , Spain 1808–1939, ch. 5; Ullman, , Tragic Week, p. 95. See also Origin and Ideals, p. 55, and cf. Entwistle, , “Political Education of Adults,” pp. 248–9, and Samuel, R., “British Marxist Historians, 1880–1980: Part One,” New Left Review, 120 (March-April, 1980):67, 96.Google Scholar

42. Cf. the debate between the Nearing, Socialist Scott and Ferm, Alexis, Has Propaganda any value in Education? (Stelton, 1925), pp. 8, 10. For Nearing, , “in the child's process of acquiring experience, there are some things that he can afford to acquire by himself, and other ideas and practices that he cannot afford to acquire by himself” (for example, that “poverty is a social disease”).Google Scholar

43. Faure, S., L'Anarchie, L'Anarchisme, Les Anarchistes (Paris, 1927), pp. 46, 61; Ritter, A., Anarchism: A Theoretical Analysis (Cambridge, 1980), p. 38. For the importance of reason, science and education in early Spanish Anarchism, see Kaplan, T., Anarchists of Andalusia, 1868–1903 (Princeton, 1977), pp. 88–91.Google Scholar

44. Wintsch, , L'Ecole Ferrer: Un Essai, p. 3. Cf. Spring, , A Primer of Libertarian Education, p. 22; Matthews, F., review of Avrich, , Modern School Movement, in Canadian Journal of History, 16 (1981):522–4; and Simon, B., “Education and the Right Offensive,” Marxism Today, 24 (Feb. 1980):13.Google Scholar

45. “True Education,” Freedom (March 1910); “The New Spirit in Education,” Ethical World (5 March 1898). Cf. Simon, B., “Why no Pedagogy in England?,” in Simon, B. and Taylor, W. (eds.), Education in the Eighties (London, 1981), p. 141, where an effective pedagogy means starting from the standpoint of what children have “in common as members of the human species,” with appropriate adjustments to practice according to “specific individual needs”; De Jean, J., “La Nouvelle Héloïse, or the Case for Pedagogical Deviation,” Yale French Studies, no. 63 (Yale University Press, 1982):107–111; and Crocker, L.G., Jean-Jacques Rousseau: The Prophetic Voice, 1758–1778, vol. 1 (New York, 1973), ch. 4.Google Scholar

46. La Scuola Laica (Rome), 2, 2 (Jan. 1909):5, International Institute of Social History (Amsterdam); L'Ecole Rénovée, 1, 2 (May 1908):53.Google Scholar

47. La Scuola Moderna di Clivio, 1 (Nov. 1910), unpaginated, and 6 [New Series] (Nov. 1920), IISH. Cf. “anarchism in the classroom,” Freedom (Dec. 1912):91, which praised the Montessori system, seeing in it a sort of order through chaos: “the expansion of life by freedom and self-ordered activity.” Google Scholar

48. “A Libertarian School,” Freedom (Sept. 1897):63; Archer, , p. 20, quoting from an article by Ferrer in España Nueva (16 June 1906).Google Scholar

49. See De Vroede, , “Francisco Ferrer et la Ligue,” p. 286, which cites Delgado, B. in Perspectivas Pedagogicas, 35–6 (1975):35; Dommanget, , Grands Socialistes, p. 374.Google Scholar

50. See e.g. Ullman, , Tragic Week, pp. 93, 98, 101; Fleming, , Elisée Reclus, pp. 164ff; Entwistle, H., “Political Education and the Works of Antonio Gramsci,” International Journal of Political Education, 1 (1977–8): 105; MacIntyre, S., A proletarian science: Marxism in Britain 1917–1933 (Cambridge, 1980), pp. 56–7, 87.Google Scholar

51. Cf. Neild, K. and Seed, J., “Waiting for Gramsci,” review essay in Social History, 6 (1981):222; Entwistle, , “Political Education of Adults,” pp. 248–9.Google Scholar

52. Cf. Ullman, , pp. 101–2; De Vroede, , pp. 289–90.Google Scholar

53. See Le Véritable Francisco Ferrer, p. 110; Lida, , “Educación anarquista en España,” p. 42; McCabe, , Martyrdom of Ferrer, pp. 44–5. Also e.g. Wintsch, , L'Ecole Ferrer, p. 4; Freedom (Feb. 1909):16, and International Modern School Magazine (Whitechapel, London), 1, 1 (Dec. 1921): lectures were given by students of the Central Labour College, for example on the “Life of P. Kropotkine.” Google Scholar

54. Hart, M., Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860–1931 (Austin, Texas, 1978), p. 138; cf. Dulles, J.W.F., Anarchists and Communists in Brazil, 1900–1935 (Austin, Texas, 1973), p. 34.Google Scholar

55. The Modern School, 1, 7 (July 1914):1–3; Mother Earth, 5, 5 (July 1910):155. See also Veysey, , p. 78, and Perlin, T.M., “Anarchism in New Jersey: the Ferrer Colony at Stelton,” New Jersey History, 89, 3 (Fall 1971): 137.Google Scholar

56. Avrich, , Modern School Movement, p. 282. Cf. Wintsch, , L'Ecole Ferrer, p. 3, and La Scuola Moderna di Clivio, 1 [New Series] nos. 3 and 6 (Sept., Nov. 1920).Google Scholar

57. La Scuola Moderna, v. 1, nos. 1 and 2 (Oct.-Nov. 1910):23; Wintsch, , p. 54; Freedom (Sept. 1897):63. Cf. Devaldès, M., L'Education et la Liberté [1900] (Paris-Bruxelles, edn. Pensée et Action, 1958), pp. 6ff.Google Scholar

58. La Scuola Moderna di Clivio, no. 1 (Nov. 1910).Google Scholar

59. [F.P.] The Martyrdom of Francisco Ferrer, p. 2. See also Labour Leader (3 Sept. 1909):5666, citing El Heraldo of Madrid.Google Scholar

60. The Modern School, no. 5 (Autumn 1913):6; Margaret Sanger: An Autobiography [1938] (New York, 1971), p. 163.Google Scholar

61. Avrich, , Modern School Movement, pp. 36, 39, 163, citing Berkman; Maîtron, , Histoire du Mouvement Anarchiste, p. 335.Google Scholar

62. “Il Programma della nostra Scuola,” La Scuola Moderna di Clivio , no. 15 (Sept. 1920): 3. Cf. Ferrer's rejection of instruction in Catalan as a confining of “humanity,” in Origin and Ideals, pp. 13–14, and Gramsci's similar attitude towards the educational value of Italian dialect, in Entwistle, , Antonio Gramsci, pp. 23ff. Google Scholar

63. “L'Educazione Razionale,” La Scuola Moderna di Clivio, 2, 1 (Jan. 1921), and 1, 6 (Nov. 1920); Margaret S anger, p. 163.Google Scholar

64. See Avrich, , Modem School Movement, pp. 318ff; Sanger, M., “Portet and Ferrer,” The Modern School, 3, 6–7 (Nov.-Dec. 1916): 136–41, 157–60, 184–87; Dick, J., “Recollections of Lorenzo Portet,” ibid., 4, 1 (June-July 1917):25–7. See also Margaret Sanger, pp. 123ff; Le Véritable Francisco Ferrer, p. 259; and for Portet's relationship with Sanger, , Gray, M., Margaret Sanger: a biography of the champion of birth control (New York, 1979), chs. 8 and 9.Google Scholar

65. Dick, J., “Ferrer and his Work,” Freedom (April 1910), and “The Revindication of Ferrer,” ibid. (June 1912):47. For the Anarcho-syndicalist background, see especially Bower, F., Rolling Stonemason: An Autobiography (London, 1936), ch. 14, and Holton, R., “Syndicalism and Labour on Merseyside 1906–1914,” in Hikins, H.R. (ed.), Building the Union. Studies on the growth of the workers' movment: Merseyside 1756–1967 (Liverpool, 1973), pp. 121–150.Google Scholar

66. See The Herald of Revolt, 1, 2 (Jan. 1911, London):3; The Plebs (May and July 1915). Also Freedom (Dec. 1906; Aug.-Sept. 1907; Nov. 1908); The Voice of Labour (24 Aug. 1907). For workers' education in this context, see Frow, R., “Independent Working Class Education with particular reference to South Lancashire 1909–1930,” and Fidler, G., “Labor Conflicts in Workers' Education: A Local Perspective,” Paedagogica Historica, forthcoming.Google Scholar

67. Liverpool Trades Council Collection, 331 TRA 10/3, Liverpool Record Office.Google Scholar

68. Freedom (May 1909):39. Cf. The Modern School, 1,4 (Spring 1913):20, where “our object is not to prepare good, docile citizens for a capitalist state or efficient workers for the wage-slave markets. We are futurists in education; we are idealists … the children of the Modern School shall be the men and women of tomorrow.” Google Scholar

69. Freedom (Jan., June, Oct. 1910).Google Scholar

70. International Modern School Magazine, 1, 1–3 (Dec. 1921, Jan.-June, Sept.-Dec. 1922), British Library. See also Freedom (Feb. 1909):16, (May 1909):39, (March 1911):19, and (Dec. 1909):95—for a reference to Portet, who saved the school from financial collapse by providing a guarantee on the rent. For the transfer to London, see ibid. (June 1912): 48; the Liverpool Voice of Labour nevertheless mentions a Modern School in the city as late as 1914 (22 May 1914).Google Scholar

71. Labour's Northern Voice, 1, 1(1 May 1925):6. See also Reid, F., “Socialist Sunday Schools in Britian, 1892–1939,” International Review of Social History 11 (1966):20; Fidler, G., “The Work of Joseph and Eleanor Edwards, Two Liverpool Enthusiasts,” ibid., 24 (1979):305ff.Google Scholar

72. Freedom (Aug. 1971):63.Google Scholar

73. Ibid. (Nov. 1913), and Holmes, E., What Is and What Might Be, p.vi. Cf. Ferrer's “Reform of the School” (Origin and Ideals, ch. 9), which sought the creation of new schools, aimed at “an increasingly complete emancipation of the individual” and where “a spirit of freedom … will colour the whole education of the future.” (p. 52).Google Scholar

74. Wintsch, , L'Ecole Ferrer: Un Essai D'Institution Ouvrière, p. 4; Duveau, E., Aux Libres Penseurs, aux Socialistes, aux Anarchistes … (n.d.), p. 2 (CIRA); Archer, , Life, Trial, and Death, p. 83. There is a brief sketch of the school in Louis, R., “Le Dr Wintsch et L'Ecole Ferrer de Lausanne,” Le Monde Libertaire, 129 (Feb. 1967):12. There appears to have been a Bulletin de l'Ecole Ferrer, but I have been unable to trace any surviving issues.Google Scholar

75. L'Ecole Ferre, p. 13–16. Duveau's polemical pamphlet, Aux Libres Penseurs, identifies the opposing camps as those gravitating to Wintsch and the Anarchists, and “moderates, freethinkers, printers, socialists.” Google Scholar

76. L'Ecole Ferrer, pp. 24, 28.Google Scholar

77. Ibid., pp. 5, 53–54, 55–56 (my emphasis).Google Scholar

78. Wintsch, J. Un Artiste Lausannois—Steinlen (Lausanne, 1919), pp. 16, 18; Les Cahiers D'Art No. 124: Théophile Alexandre Steinlen, 1859–1923 (Lausanne, 1960). The Free Commune (Manchester), 1 (April 1898) considered Zola's Paris [1898] to be “the keenest criticism of modern society that has appeared for a long time, its gospel if Reason, Work and Freedom.” Though generally devoid of a politically revolutionary dimension, and stressing the importance of children's art as “creative self-expression,” Elizabeth Ferm's “Creative Work at the Modern School” also envisaged a contribution to “the whole social body” and a “vision of a new society founded on creativeness instead of rivalry and competion.” See Hartman, G. and Shumaker, A. (eds.), Creative Expression: the Development of Children in Art, Music, Literature and Dramatics (New York, 1932), pp. 38–39.Google Scholar

79. De Vroede, , “Francisco Ferrer et la Ligue,” p. 295.Google Scholar

80. Blatchford, R., Merrie England [1894] (London, 1895), p. 160, my emphasis; cf. Fidler, , “The Work of Joseph and Eleanor Edwards, Two Liverpool Enthusiasts,” pp. 307–8.Google Scholar

81. See “Lester F. Ward on Spain and Ferrer,” in Abbott, (ed.), Francisco Ferrer, p. 83; Mother Earth, no. 11 (Jan. 1911):348–352.Google Scholar

82. “The Ferrer Memorial at Brussels,” Freedom (Dec. 1911):94; The Anarchist (Glasgow), 1, 34 (17 Jan. 1913):2.Google Scholar