Tropical moist forests in Africa are concentrated in the Congo Basin. A variety of animals in these forests, in particular mammals, are hunted for their meat, termed bushmeat. This paper investigates current and future trends of bushmeat protein, and non-bushmeat protein supply, for inhabitants of the main Congo Basin countries. Since most bushmeat is derived from forest mammals, published extraction (E) and production (P) estimates of mammal populations were used to calculate the per person protein supplied by these. Current bushmeat protein supply may range from 30 g person−1 day−1 in the Democratic Republic of Congo, to 180 g person−1 day−1 in Gabon. Future bushmeat protein supplies were predicted for the next 50 years by employing current E:P ratios, and controlling for known deforestation and population growth rates. At current exploitation rates, bushmeat protein supply would drop 81% in all countries in less than 50 years; only three countries would be able to maintain a protein supply above the recommended daily requirement of 52 g person−1 day−1. However, if bushmeat harvests were reduced to a sustainable level, all countries except Gabon would be dramatically affected by the loss of wild protein supply. The dependence on bushmeat protein is emphasized by the fact that four out of the five countries studied do not produce sufficient amounts of non-bushmeat protein to feed their populations. These findings imply that a significant number of forest mammals could become extinct relatively soon, and that protein malnutrition is likely to increase dramatically if food security in the region is not promptly resolved.

Cave temperature monitoring was carried out in the Cueva del Agua de Iznalloz, Granada, Spain, a cave that has great tourist potential and which has been maintained under natural conditions for over 30 years. The cave temperature under natural conditions was used to identify possible anthropogenic influences, in order to distinguish these from the variations directly related to natural changes. In particular, the relative influence of external weather conditions, thermal modification caused by visitors and the subsequent thermal recovery of the cave were identified. In addition, controlled experiments investigated the effect of two large-scale visits (980 and 2088 visitors day−1) to the cave interior, before any tourist activities in the cave were undertaken. Correlation and spectral analyses of time series were used to determine the thermal behaviour of the cave over time. The effect of both mass visits on the air temperature in the interior of the cave was very rapid (2.5 min). The maximum perturbation of air temperature within the cave during the two experiments was after 30 and 70 min. The memory effect for temperature whilst the cave was open to the public was estimated to be 5–6 h, whilst the response to external meteorological changes exceeded one week. A permanent visitor capacity of 53 people ensures that the natural cave temperature can be regained within 4–5 h. The cave can only support small groups of visitors, not the massive visits characteristic of show caves.

Reactivation of sand drift is a common phenomenon in arid areas and needs suitable surface vegetation in association with overstorey trees for better stabilization. Regeneration and survival of Cassia angustifolia seedlings were studied in relation to different adult neighbours and soil water content with a view to developing effective surface vegetation and control of sand drift. Acacia tortilis, Prosopis juliflora and Calligonum polygonoides were the experimental adult neighbours. Observations were recorded at distances of 0–1.0 m (inner canopy [IC] zone), 1.0–1.5 m (outer canopy [OC] zone) and 1.5–2.5 m (outside the canopy [OS] zone) from the neighbours. Seeds and regenerated seedling densities were higher in the C. polygonoides plot than the other two neighbours and the control plots. The density was higher in the OC zone of the C. polygonoides and P. juliflora plots, the OS zone of the A. tortilis plot and the IC zone of the control plot. Both inter- and intraspecific competition resulted in high mortality during July–October in A. tortilis and P. juliflora plots. Seedling survival decreased in February and June, but the density, which was greater in the IC zone, was positively correlated with that in July and with the soil water content (SWC). The ultimate survival of seedlings was higher in the neighbour inclusion than control plots. The soil water content (SWC) was generally higher in the Calligonum polygonoides plot than that in the A. tortilis and P. juliflora plots. With distance from the adult neighbours, the SWC increased in the 25–50 cm and 50–75 cm and decreased in the 0–25 cm soil depth layers. Shoot height and biomass of one-year-old C. angustifolia seedlings were higher in the C. polygonoides plot than in the plots of other neighbours. A negative relative neighbour effect for most of the growth variables suggests that the adult neighbours facilitated regeneration, survival, growth and biomass of C. angustifolia seedlings. C. polygonoides was the best neighbour, with better soil water content at depth and the most positive influence on seedling growth; it is therefore a suitable planting partner for C. angustifolia in promoting the effective stabilization of dunes.

Detailed studies are essential in India to evaluate air quality and implement measures for effective control of mining in sensitive locations. A study for this purpose was carried out in the Basundhara area of the Ib Valley coalfield in Orissa State, India. The 24-hr average concentrations of suspended particulate matter (SPM), respirable particulate matter (RPM), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) were determined at regular intervals throughout one year at seven monitoring stations in residential areas and two stations in mining/industrial areas. The 24-hr average SPM and RPM concentrations were 312.7–598.4 μg m−3 and 100.2–199.6 μg m−3 in industrial areas, and were 95.6–275.7 μg m−3 and 28.5–86.8 μg m−3 in residential areas. During the study period, 24-hr and annual average SPM and RPM concentrations exceeded the respective standards set in the Indian national ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) protocol in certain residential and industrial areas. However, 24-hr and annual average concentrations of SO2 (residential: 20.5–24.3 μg m−3, industrial: 15.3–30.8 μg m−3) and NOx (residential: 19.7–25.3 μg m−3, industrial: 14.3–33.5 μg m−3) were well within the prescribed limit of the NAAQS in both residential and industrial areas. The temporal variations of SPM and RPM fitted polynomial trends well and on average in the mining area 31.38% of the SPM was RPM. The linear regression correlation coefficients between SPM and RPM and between NOx and SO2 were 0.90 and 0.52, respectively. The kriging technique determined that maximal concentrations of SPM and RPM occurred within the mining site. A management strategy is formulated for effective control of air pollution at source, and mitigative measures should include implementation of green belts around the sensitive areas where the concentration of air pollutants exceeds the standard limit.

Human activities have fragmented amphibian habitats and affected amphibian diversity and distribution, but the ecology is poorly known. A four-year study assessed the diversity and distribution of amphibians in undisturbed and disturbed sites of the Kudremukh National Park (KNP), India. Iron-ore mining and associated activities in the KNP have induced habitat fragmentation. The disturbed sites had ranges of habitat variables clearly distinguishable from undisturbed sites. Thirty-six species of anurans and six species of caecilians have been recorded in the KNP and the total amphibian species richness represents 20% of the whole Indian amphibian fauna. Among these, 20 species were distributed in both disturbed and undisturbed sites, while 22 were found only in undisturbed sites indicating they may be threatened by further habitat fragmentation. Species diversity and richness formed two distinct groups clearly associated with disturbed and undisturbed habitats, respectively.

Reclamation of saline lands seems difficult for climatic and economic reasons, but cultivation of salt-tolerant plants is an approach to increasing productivity and improvement of salt-affected wastelands. A five-year field study was conducted to evaluate the effects of growing a salt-tolerant species Leptochloa fusca (L.) Kunth (kallar grass) on chemical properties of a saline sodic soil irrigated with poor quality groundwater. Soil salinity, sodicity and pH decreased exponentially by growing kallar grass as a result of leaching of salts from surface (0–20 cm) to lower depths (>100 cm). Concentrations of soluble cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+) and anions (Cl−, SO42− and HCO3−) were reduced through to greater soil depths. A significant decline in soil pH was attributed to release of CO2 by grass roots and solublization of CaCO3. Both soil salinity and soil pH were significantly correlated with Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Cl−, HCO3− and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). Significant correlations were found between soluble cations (Na+, Ca2+ and K+), soluble anions (Cl−, SO42− and HCO3−) and the SAR. In contrast, there were negative correlations between soil organic matter content and all chemical properties. The ameliorative effects on the soil chemical environment were pronounced after three years of growing kallar grass. Cultivation of kallar grass enhanced leaching and interactions among soil chemical properties and thus restored soil fertility. The soil maintained the improved characteristics with further growth of the grass up to five years suggesting that growing salt-tolerant plants is a sustainable approach to biological amelioration of saline wastelands.

This paper illustrates the opportunity for conservation offered by linking traditional agroecological knowledge and advances in adaptive management theory and practice. Drawing on examples from the Banawa-Marawola region of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, a suite of traditional resource management practices premised on principles of adaptive management are identified and assessed, including: (1) resource management practices and regulations that are associated with the dynamics of complex systems; (2) procedural, planning and decision-making processes that foster learning; (3) sanctions and taboos that act as social mechanisms for the management and conservation of natural resources; and (4) ceremonies and social interactions that promote cultural internalization of the various practices, procedures and mechanisms. In addition, an emerging socio-political movement in the Banawa-Marawola region is explored. Premised on the strengthening of traditional rights and practices, the nascent Kamalise movement potentially provides the socio-political, institutional and organizational context needed to link traditional agroecological knowledge and adaptive management with broader conservation goals. Based on this analysis, two opportunities to enhance conservation in the region are identified: first, maintaining traditional agroecological systems and the associated adaptive resource management strategies used by local groups, and second, building upon the Kamalise movement to forge conservation alliances among communities, non-government and government organizations in which locally-evolved adaptive resource management strategies can be effectively applied. Both opportunities to combine traditional knowledge, adaptive management and conservation, however, are linked to the development aspirations of traditional groups: self-determination, acquisition of land rights and controlling the impacts of changes in livelihood.

Selective logging applied in tropical forests is based on one universal criterion: a minimum diameter cutting limit for all commercial timber species. Minimum diameter cutting limits in mixed dipterocarp forests of the Malesia region lead to high felling intensities (10–20+ trees ha−1). Such extraction rates create massive stand damage (>50% of the remaining tree population), which has a negative impact on the regeneration and growth of many harvested dipterocarp species. As such, the minimum diameter cutting limit approach is seldom compatible with sustainable forest management. Where basic ecological characteristics of the commercial species are considered in timber harvesting prescriptions, mixed dipterocarp forests appear capable of sustained timber yields, habitat conservation, and providing other goods and services. This paper first presents the main silvicultural systems developed in mixed dipterocarp forests of Western Malesia and then reviews current knowledge of dipterocarp biology to finally develop guidelines aimed at improving the ecological sustainability of production forests of Western Malesia. These guidelines, a pragmatic reflection of science and ‘best guess’ judgement, include: (1) integration of reduced-impact logging practices into normal management operations; (2) cutting of eight trees ha−1 or less (with a felling cycle of 40–60 years to be determined according to local conditions); (3) defining minimum diameter cutting limits according to the structure, density and diameter at reproduction of target species; (4) avoiding harvesting species with less than one adult tree ha−1 (diameter at breast height [dbh] ≥ 50 cm over an area of 50–100 ha); (5) minimizing the size and connectivity of gaps (<600 m2 whenever possible); (6) refraining from treatments such as understorey clearing; and (7) providing explicit protection for key forest species and the ecological processes they perform. Further refinement is encouraged to allow for local conditions, and for other forest types.

Waza National Park, Cameroon, is representative of trends towards more participatory protected area management in Africa. It has no transition zone and interactions with the surrounding human population are complex. A recently adopted management plan allows experiments with limited consumptive use of natural resources, in exchange for people's collaboration. In order to determine which resources are desired and which resources are liabilities, people in the Park's vicinity were interviewed. Respondents' attitudes towards conservation were positive, motivated by both use and intrinsic values, and with reference to future generations. Attitudes were significantly related to locally perceived benefits. Respondents found most of the Park's resources useful but differences between user groups were significant. User groups also differed in their complaints about human-wildlife conflicts, but overall they considered the animals most important for tourism as the main nuisance. This case study shows that local aspirations cannot all be met, but indicates that limited outreach can improve existing public support for conservation measures.

Despite the vast destruction caused by recent fires in Sumatra's forested areas, there have been few analyses of their spatial variability and causes. Various combinations of predisposing and land-use factors in space and time may cause fires. For each variable, fire densities were calculated to assess the spatial and temporal association between natural and cultural landscape variables and fire occurrence in four provinces in Sumatra, Indonesia for a non-dry year (1999) and a dry year (1997). This was complemented by a single multivariate logistic regression for the two years over the four provinces with fires as the dependent variable and land use and predisposing factors as independent variables. The provincial analyses showed that fires are determined by multiple, interacting factors and that these factor interactions are not the same in all provinces. In the non-dry year, the factors were only weak determinants of fires and only few determinants were common to all provinces (presence of undisturbed forests, elevation, smallholder area, land allocation to production area). In the dry year, more determinants of fires were found to be common to all provinces (presence of undisturbed forests, elevation, land allocation to production or conversion areas, presence of plantations, distance from roads). This led to the identification of pathways that increased fire probability. The first step was the allocation of land to different land-use types and stakeholders by national policies. If allocated to large-scale landowners, fires were more likely to occur in plantations, especially in the dry year. Logging concessions did not play a major role in increasing the incidence of fire. However the strongest increase in fire probability was outside the areas under use, in undisturbed forests. We conclude that areas not yet used by large-scale landowners were more prone to fire, indicating a serious threat to the remaining forests in this region.

There is increasing degradation of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in the mountains of Nepal. It has been proposed that different components of a common property resource (CPR) do not undergo degradation at the same rate, as they are not managed in the same way under different types of property rights regimes. To examine this, information was collected through a survey of 324 households, community resource assessment ranking and group discussion in a small mountain watershed of Nepal. The study analysed NTFP collection and management practices under government and community forest management systems, and impact of these practices on the status of forest and NTFPs. The analysis based on people's perception revealed that NTFPs were being depleted more rapidly than timber components in both types of forest. The pace of depletion was, however, considerably lower in community forests, as these forests were accessible only to the relevant forest user group members. Depletion of NTFPs was due primarily to the lack of proper institutional arrangements, including the lack of a comprehensive government policy framework, for sustainable use and management of NTFPs.

In the wake of apartheid, South African protected areas have come under increasing pressure to reconcile a wealth of natural resources with the acute social and economic needs of the black rural majority. Demands for land reform, poverty alleviation and job creation have all had profound implications for the conservation and management of the nation's protected areas. An attitudinal study was conducted within three diverse South African communities, and among employees of the Kwa Zulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service (KZN Wildlife) to assess how the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park (GSWP) and the authorities charged with its management are perceived in the context of post-apartheid South Africa. Despite significant revisions to South Africa's conservation policies in the post-apartheid era, attitudinal research has continued to focus on rural black communities, leaving white residents, urban black populations and the conservation authorities themselves largely under-represented. As a result, the relationships between local communities, protected areas and conservation authorities remain largely unknown and outdated. Qualitative analysis of 90 semi-structured interviews indicated limited support (5%) for the abolition of the GSWP. The potential loss of the GSWP was associated with negative economic (88%) and environmental (66%) impacts by all respondents, regardless of race, gender, age or residency. Contrary to previous research conducted during the apartheid era, an overwhelming majority of Zulu respondents perceived a positive association between nature conservation, tourism and improved local economic welfare. Thus, local attitudes towards protected areas appeared to be improving. There remained however a discrepancy between support for the GSWP and the management authorities, particularly among respondents with limited contact with conservation staff. This is consistent with previous surveys where residents expressed support for the concept of conservation, but significant hostility towards local conservation authorities. The distinction is critical, as negative attitudes towards conservation authorities are often misinterpreted as a lack of support for conservation in general. Local residents (regardless of race or socioeconomic status) also expressed high expectations of KZN Wildlife to address issues of unemployment, poverty and tourism in the region. If these expectations are not met, support for the GSWP, as well as the conservation authorities, is likely to decline dramatically.

Marine sanctuaries are increasingly being promoted as tools for conservation and fisheries management. This study investigates the effects of protection over 19 years on substrate composition and fish communities in four marine sanctuaries and corresponding non-sanctuary areas in the Philippines and examines the importance of community support, management measures and enforcement of regulations on these ecological effects. Between 1981 and 2000, substrate cover variables were measured using line transects with scuba and snorkel surveys, and fish censuses (identification to family level) were conducted using scuba within a 500 m2 area. Semi-structured interviews collected data on community support for the sanctuaries, and observations and interviews established management and enforcement aspects of the sanctuaries. Over time, all sanctuaries showed improvements, or maintenance of, ecological variables compared with pre-enforcement times, with maintenance of hard coral cover and average increases of 8.3% in fish species richness and 54.9% in fish abundance. In comparison, non-sanctuary areas showed maintenance of the status quo or declines in ecological variables. However hard coral cover, fish abundances and fish species richness showed significant declines as well as increases in sanctuary areas. Community, management and enforcement factors were significantly related to positive ecological trends in sanctuary areas; management and enforcement were related to a wider variety of ecological factors than community score. Community support was significantly related to an increase in hard coral cover in deep areas. Enforcement of regulations was significantly related to an increase in abundance of fishery target fish species in sanctuary areas, and simple management measures were significantly related to an increase in abundance of large predators. Supportive communities that voluntarily implemented sanctuary regulations, improved enforcement, and small discrete cohesive communities may have facilitated the process of building this community support. Well-enforced sanctuaries that showed an increase in abundance of target species may have contributed to the maintenance of fish yields in adjacent non-sanctuary areas. The effects of sanctuary implementation varied on a case-by-case basis, influenced by environmental, biological, physical and human factors. However, a combination of community support, management measures and enforcement of regulations contributed towards positive ecological trends in sanctuary areas.

Historical research has enhanced understanding of past human influences on forests and provides insights that can improve current conservation efforts. This paper presents one of the first detailed studies of mangrove forest history. Historical changes in mangroves and their use were examined in Bais Bay and Banacon Island, Philippines. Cutting to make space for fish ponds and residential settlement has dramatically reduced the distribution of mangroves in Bais, although forest has expanded rapidly near the mouth of the largest river where soils from nearby deforested hillsides have been deposited as sediments along the coast. Heavy cutting of mangroves for commercial sale of firewood occurred under minor forest product concessions in Bais and Banacon between the late 1930s and 1979. Cutting for domestic consumption of fuel and construction wood by local people has been widespread in both areas, although rates of cutting have varied in space and over time as a result of changing demographic pressures and in response to cutting restrictions imposed by firewood concessionaires, fish pond owners and government officials. People in both Bais and Banacon have responded to declining local forest availability by planting mangroves. Early motivations to plant reflected the desire to have a ready supply of posts for construction of fish weirs. Many have also planted to protect fishpond dykes and homes from storm damage, and increasing numbers now plant as a means to establish tenure claims over mangrove areas. However, planted stands have tended to be species monocultures and to bear only limited resemblance to natural mangrove forests. In contrast to many upland forests, opportunities for protection and restoration of mangroves are limited by virtue of a highly restricted natural distribution and by competing land uses that are likely to intensify in the future. Understanding historical patterns of change can be instructive to conservationists, but the future remains laden with uncertainties.

The degradation of the steppe ecosystem in Xilingol League in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China could only be reversed if the intensity of use were reduced, but there have been no studies of how this might be achieved. An investigation of the relationship between Xilingol Biosphere Reserve (XBR) and Xilinhot City explored how greater urbanization might aid restoration of degraded steppe. Experimental data indicate that 72% of the lands have been degraded since 1947, and the relationship between Xilinhot City and the XBR has been reciprocal. The XBR can provide materials such as food, water and a healthy environment for Xilinhot City and Baiyinxile Town, and the high pasture pressure can be reduced by urbanization. The cities could host a substantially greater population in a smaller area than at present, which would in turn reduce pressure on the land. Thus, conservation of the XBR, particularly the core zones, could be ensured through an urban model, which could also provide development opportunities for people moving into conurbations.

The value of traditional ecological knowledge for biodiversity research and conservation is widely recognized. The value of wildlife knowledge provided by recent migrants is less clear. Photographs of 10 mammal species were shown to 622 individuals in communities near Way Kambas National Park in Sumatra, Indonesia, to assess wildlife knowledge among recent migrants and to identify socio-economic variables that can be used to identify more knowledgeable informants. Knowledge scores were categorized by taxonomic family, genus and species. Large, charismatic and abundant animals were identified more frequently than smaller and more secretive animals. Higher knowledge scores were significantly associated with males, higher educational attainment and past experience with these animals. Number of years respondents had lived in the area and respondent age were also good predictors of higher scores. The characteristics of animals that were likely to be identified more accurately were assessed. Generic terms used to describe animals can confound individual responses. Biodiversity research, conservation and education programmes frequently rely on ‘local’ knowledge to inform management and policy. This information can be a valuable addition to field-based efforts to identify the distribution and abundance of rare endangered species. With more and more migrants living near the world's wildlife protected areas, care must be taken to understand how human demographic shifts may affect such studies.