Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-gtxcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T22:39:20.671Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

“WE’RE JUST SEPARATE FROM EVERYBODY”

Culture, Class, and the Racialization of Muslim Newcomer Youth

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 August 2020

Aaron Leo*
Affiliation:
Department of Educational Theory and Practice, University at Albany, SUNY
*
Corresponding author: Aaron Leo, Postdoctoral Associate, NYKids, Department of Educational Theory and Practice, University at Albany (SUNY), 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY 12222. E-mail: aleo@albany.edu.

Abstract

Recent scholarly work has explored the experiences of racialization among Muslim immigrants in the United States. Such work has challenged a static view of race strictly tied to phenotype by highlighting the significance of culture and religion to racial ascription as well as the varied ways individuals respond to their own racialized position. While valuable, much of this scholarship has analyzed the racialization of Muslim immigrants as it relates to Whiteness thereby neglecting their relationship with other racialized minorities such as African Americans. Moreover, such work has focused on culture and religion without discussing the role that social class plays in the process of racialization. This article seeks to address these gaps by drawing on ethnographic data gathered among a group of Muslim newcomer youth in an urban, multiracial high school in upstate New York. The findings presented here show how these youth are racialized along cultural and religious lines yet actively respond to this process in various ways. In addition, participants articulated racializing comments towards African Americans with significant class connotations. Despite the tensions between Muslim newcomers and African Americans, moments of solidarity were evident and drew attention to the potential for establishing cross-racial alliances.

Type
State of the Art
Copyright
© 2020 Hutchins Center for African and African American Research

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abu-Lughod, Lila (2013). Do Muslim Women Need Saving? Cambridge, MA: HarvardUniversity Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aidi, Hisham, and Manning, Marable (2006). Introduction: Islam and Black America. Souls, 8(4): 12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ajrouch, Kristine J., and Jamal, Amaney (2007). Assimilation to a White Identity: The Case of Arab Americans. International Migration Review, 41(4): 860879.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ajrouch, Kristine J. and Kusow, Abdi M. (2007). Racial and Religious Contexts: SituationalIdentities among Lebanese and Somali Muslim Immigrants. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(1): 7294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al-Saji, Alia (2010). The Racialization of Muslim Veils: A Philosophical Analysis. Philosophy and Social Criticism, 36(8): 875902.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, Wayne, Stockton, Ronald, Howell, Sally, Jamal, Amaney, Lin, Ann Chih, Tessler, Andrew Shryockand Mark (2006). Executive Summary: 2003 Detroit Arab American Study. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research.Google Scholar
Bald, Vivek, Chatterji, Miabi, Reddy, Sujani and Vimalassery, Manu (2010). Introduction. In Bald, Vivek Chatterji, Miabi Reddy, Sujani and Vimalassery, Manu (Eds.), The Sun Never Sets: South Asian Migrants in an Age of U.S. Power, pp. 124. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Bashi Treitler, Vilna (2013). The Ethnic Project: Transforming Racial Fiction into Ethnic Factions. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2004). From Bi-racial to Tri-Racial: Towards a New System of Racial Stratification in the USA. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 27(6): 931950.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2006). Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Brodkin, Karen (1998). How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says About Race in America. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Cainkar, Louise (2002). No Longer Invisible: Arab and Muslim Exclusion After September 11. Middle East Report, 32: 2229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cainkar, Louise (2006). The Social Construction of Difference in the Arab American Experience. Journal of American Ethnic History, Winter/Spring: 243278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cainkar, Louise and Selod, Saher (2018). Review of Race Scholarship and the War on Terror. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 4(2): 165177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, Prudence (2003). “Black” Cultural Capital, Status Positioning, and Schooling Conflicts for Low-Income African American Youth. Social Problems, 50(1): 136155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chan-Malik, Sylvia (2011). “Common Cause”: On the Black-Immigrant Debate and Constructing the Muslim-American. Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Religion, 2(8): 139.Google Scholar
Dhingra, Pawan (2007). Managing Multicultural Lives: Asian American Professionals and the Challenge of Multiple Identities. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fordham, Signithia, and Ogbu, John (1986). Black Students’ School Success: Coping with the Burden of “Acting White.” The Urban Review, 18(3): 176206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fordham, Signithia (1996). Blacked Out: Dilemmas of Race, Identity, and Success at Capital High. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garner, and Selod, (2014). The Racialization of Muslims: Empirical Studies of Islamophobia. Critical Sociology, 41(1): 9-19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golash-Boza, Tanya (2016). A Critical and Comprehensive Sociological Theory of Race and Racism. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 2(2): 113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenman, Nancy P. (2005). Anthropology Applied to Education. In Kedia, Satish and van Willigan, John (Eds.), Applied Anthropology: Domains of Application, pp. 263306. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.Google Scholar
Gualtieri, Sarah (2009). Between Arab and White: Race and Ethnicity in the Early Syrian American Diaspora. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Hochschild, Jennifer (1996). Facing Up to the American Dream: Race, Class, and the Soul of the Nation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haney López, Ian (1996). White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Husain, Atiya (2017). Moving Beyond (and Back to) the Black-White Binary: A Study of Black and White Muslims’ Racial Positioning in the United States. Ethnic and Racial Studies, Special Issue: 118.Google Scholar
Iceland, John (2017). Race and Ethnicity in America. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ignatiev, Noel (1995). How the Irish Became White. New York: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
In Re Najour (1909). Circuit Court, N.D. Georgia. 1 Dec.Google Scholar
Jackson, Sherman (2005). Islam and the Blackamerican: Looking toward the Third Resurrection. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, Sherman (2010). Islam(s), Race, and American Islamophobia. In Esposito, John and Khan, Ibrahim (Eds.), Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century, pp. 93108. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Jaffe-Walter, Reva (2016). Coercive Concern: Nationalism, Liberalism, and the Schooling of Muslim Youth. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Kao, Grace, and Marta, Tienda (1995). Optimism and Achievement: The Educational Performance of Immigrant Youth. Social Science Quarterly, 76(1): 119.Google Scholar
Kibria, Nazli (2011). Muslims in Motion: Islam and National Identity in the Bangladeshi Diaspora. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Kucsera, John, and Orfield, Gary (2014). New York State’s Extreme School Segregation: Inequality, Inaction, and a Damaged Future. Civil Rights Project. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED558739.pdf (accessed March 20, 2016).Google Scholar
Lee, Jennifer, and Bean, Frank D. (2004). America’s Changing Color Lines: Immigration, Race/Ethnicity, and Multiracial Identification. Annual Review of Sociology, 30: 221242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Stacey (2005). Up Against Whiteness: Race, School, and Immigrant Youth. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Leo, Aaron (2019). Success and failure in the “land of opportunities”: How social class informs educational attitudes among newcomer immigrants and refugees. American Educational Research Journal. Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.3102%2F0002831219876596.Google Scholar
Louie, Vivian (2004). Compelled to Excel: Immigration, Education, and Opportunity among Chinese Americans. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Love, Erik (2017). Islamophobia and Racism in America. New York: New York University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mac an Ghaill, Mairtin, and Haywood, Chris (2015). British-born Pakistani and Bangladeshi Young Men: Exploring Unstable Concepts of Muslim, Islamophobia, and Racialization. Critical Sociology, 41(1): 97114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maghbouleh, Neda (2017). The Limits of Whiteness: Iranian Americans and the Everyday Politics of Race. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maira, Sunaina (2016). The 9/11 Generation: Youth, Rights, and Solidarity in the War on Terror. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Maira, Sunaina (2010). Citizenship and Dissent: South Asian Muslim Youth in the U.S. after 9/11. South Asian Popular Culture, 8(1): 3145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marvasti, Amir (2005). Being Middle Eastern American: Identity Negotiation in the Context of the War on Terror. Symbolic Interaction, 28(4): 525547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrison, Toni (1993). On the Backs of Blacks. Time Magazine, December, p. 57Google Scholar
Moss, Kirby (2003). The Color of Class: Poor Whites and the Paradox of Privilege. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naber, Nadine (2000). Ambiguous Insiders: An Investigation of Arab American Invisibility. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 23(1): 3761.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
New York State Education Department (2016). [Parkside] High School Report Card Data. Retrieved February 1, 2017.Google Scholar
Ngo, Bic (2010). Unresolved Identities: Discourse, Ambivalence, and Urban Immigrant Students. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
O’Connor, Carla (1997). Dispositions Toward (Collective) Struggle and Educational Resilience in the Inner City: A Case Analysis of Six African-American High School Students. American Educational Research Journal, 34(4): 593629.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Connor, Carla, Fernández, Sonia DeLuca, and Girard, Brian (2006). The Meaning of “Blackness”: How Black Students Differentially Align Race and Achievement Across Time and Space. In Fuligni, Andrew (Ed.), Contesting Stereotypes and Creating Identities, pp. 183208. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Ogbu, John (1987). Variability in Minority School Performance: A Problem in Search of an Explanation. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 18(4): 312334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Omi, Michael, and Winant, Howard (1994). Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s, 2nd Edition. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ortner, Sherry (1984). Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 26 (1): 126166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ortner, Sherry (2006). Anthropology and Social Theory: Culture, Power, and the Acting Subject. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
[Parkside Herald] (2017). [Parkside] Schools see a Surge in English Language Learners. January 13.Google Scholar
Perry, Pamela (2002). Shades of White: White Kids and Racial Identities in High School. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Portes, Alejandro, and Zhou, Min (1993). The New Second Generation: Segmented Assimilation and its Variants. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 530: 7496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Portes, Alejandro, and Rumbaut, Rubén (2006). Immigrant America: A Portrait, 3rd Edition. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prashad, Vijay (2000). The Karma of Brown Folk. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Purkayastha, Bandana (2005). Negotiating Ethnicity: Second-Generation South Asian Americans Traverse a Transnational World. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Rana, Junaid (2007). The Story of Islamophobia. Souls, 9(2): 148161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rana, Junaid (2011). Terrifying Muslims: Race and Labor in the South Asian Diaspora. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Roediger, David (2005). Working toward Whiteness: How America’s Immigrants Became White: The Strange Journey from Ellis Island to the Suburbs. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Said, Edward (1978). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Selod, Saher, and Embrick, David (2013). Racialization and Muslims: Situating the Muslim Experience in Race Scholarship. Sociology Compass, 7(8): 644655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverstein, Paul (2005). Immigrant Racialization and the New Savage Slot: Race, Migration, and Immigration in the New Europe. Annual Review of Anthropology, 34: 363384.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skeggs, Beverley (2004). Class, Self, Culture. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Sirin, Selcuk and Fine, Michelle (2008). Muslim American Youth: Understanding Hyphenated Identities through Multiple Methods. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Southern Poverty Law Center (2017). Hate Groups Increase for Second Consecutive Year as Trump Electrifies Radical Right. https://www.splcenter.org/news/2017/02/15/hate-groupsincrease-second-consecutive-year-trump-electrifies-radical-right (accessed March 20, 2017).Google Scholar
Spivak, Gayatri (1988). Can the Subaltern Speak? In Nelson, Cary and Grossberg, Lawrence (Eds.), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, pp. 271313. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Tehranian, John (2008). Selective Racialization: Middle-Eastern American Identity and the Faustian Pact with Whiteness. Connecticut Law Review, 40(4): 12011235.Google Scholar
Turner, Richard Brent (1997). Islam in the African-American Experience. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923). 261 U.S. 204Google Scholar
Urciuoli, Bonnie (1996). Exposing Prejudice: Puerto Rican Experiences of Language, Race, and Class. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Waters, Mary, and Jiménez, Tomás (2005). Assessing Immigrant Assimilation: New empirical and Theoretical Challenges. Annual Review of Sociology, 31: 105125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, William Julius (1987). The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago PressGoogle Scholar
Zopf, Bradley J. (2018). A Different Kind of Brown: Arabs and Middle Easterners as Anti-American Muslims. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 4 (2): 178191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar