¹ Stuart, D. M., The boy through the ages (London, 1926).Google Scholar For the iconographic historian this kind of illustrated book can still be of limited use.

² Wilson, Adrian, ‘The infancy of the history of childhood: an appraisal of Philippe Ariès’, History and Theory 19 (1980) 132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³ We can quickly survey the works which have used illustrations. Pinchbeck, Ivy and Hewitt, Margaret, Children in English society, 2 vols. (London, 1969–1973)Google Scholar reproduces 29 illustrations: relevant and interesting, but mostly credited to the Radio Times Hulton Picture Library, without adequate further identification, and insufficiently integrated with the text. Gillis, John R., Youth and history: tradition and change in European age relations 1770 – present (New York, 1974)Google Scholar has five pointedly chosen illustrations used as emblems for each chapter. Shorter, Edward, The making of the modern family (New York, 1975)Google Scholar has 19 illustrations selected and arranged with a polemical intention, and all from picture libraries. Stone, Lawrence, The family, sex and marriage in England 1500–1800 (London, 1977Google Scholar; abridged edition, London, 1979) has 30 illustrations, apparently selected with care, but, as they are mostly English satirical prints, presenting problems of interpretation. Gélis, Jacques, Laget, Mireille, Morel, Marie-France, Entrer dans la vie (Paris, 1978)Google Scholar has 27 well-chosen, unusual and properly identified illustrations. (This was consulted in the German edition, Der Weg ins Leben [Munich, 1980].) Segalen, Marline, Mori et femme dans la société paysanne (Paris, 1980)Google Scholar has very interesting illustrations, as one might expect since the author is a curator at the Musée National des Arts et Traditions Populaires, but they seem curiously unintegrated with the text, at any rate in the English edition, Love and power in the peasant family (Oxford, 1983)Google Scholar which the present writer consulted. Ozment, Steven, When fathers ruled: family life in Reformation Europe (Cambridge, Mass., 1983)Google Scholar draws effectively on a type of pictorial evidence that has already received some scholarly attention: see section VII of the present article. Demos, John, A little commonwealth: family life in Plymouth colony (New York, 1970)Google Scholar is unusual in being deliberately based on material evidence, some of which is illustrated. For the few recent publictions that have dealt usefuly with iconographic evidence, see section II of the present article.

⁴ Wilson, , ‘The infancy’, 152.Google Scholar

⁵ Duncan, Carol, ‘Happy mothers and other new ideas in French art’, Art Bulletin 55 (1973) 570–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar; ‘Fallen fathers: images of authority in pre-Revolutionary French art’, Art History 4 (1981) 186–202.Google Scholar

⁶ Sitwell, Sacheverell, Conversation pieces: a survey of British domestic portraits and their painters (London, 1936)Google Scholar; Edwards, Ralph, Early conversation pictures from the middle ages to about 1730: a study in origins (London, 1954).Google Scholar

⁷ Praz, Mario, Conversation pieces: a survey of the informal group portrait in Europe and America (London, 1971).Google Scholar

⁸ Akeret, Robert, Photoanalysis: how to interpret the hidden psychological meaning of personal and public photographs (New York, 1973)Google Scholar; Lesy, Michael, Time-frames: the meaning of family pictures (New York, 1979)Google Scholar; Hirsch, Julia, Family photographs: content, meaning, and effect (Oxford, 1981).Google Scholar

⁹ Carpenter, Margaret Boyd, The child in art (London, 1906)Google Scholar; Sauerlandt, Max, Kinderbildnisse aus fünf Jahrhunderten … 1450–1850 (Konigstein im Taunus, 1921)Google Scholar; Waldmann, Emil, Das Bild des Kindes (Berlin, 1940)Google Scholar; Hürlimann, Bettina, Children's portraits: the world of the child in European painting (London, 1950)Google Scholar; Godfrey, F. M., Child portraiture from Bellini to Cézanne (London, 1956).Google Scholar

¹⁰ For example, Bennett, Peter, The illustrated child (New York, 1979).Google Scholar

¹¹ For example, Albertazzi, Ferdinando, I pittori dell'infanzia (Bologna, 1979).Google Scholar

¹² Fuller, Peter, ‘Uncovering childhood’ in Hoyles, Martin, ed., Changing childhood (London, 1979).Google Scholar

¹³ Knipping, J. B. and Gerrits, M., Het Kind in Neerlands beeldende Kunst, 2 vols. (Wageningen, [1943–1948])Google Scholar; Beneyto, C. Gracia, Iconografta infantil en la pintura valenciana, Istituto Alfonson el Magnanimo: Servicio de estudios artisticos (Valencia, 1977).Google Scholar

¹⁴ Vienna: Historisches Museum der Stadt Wien, Das Kind und seine Welt (1959)Google Scholar; Berlin (DBR): Neue Gesellschaft für bildende Kunst und Staatliche Kunsthalle, Die gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit der Kinder in der bildende Kunst (1979)Google Scholar; Frankfurt-am-Main: Historisches Museum, Spielen und lernen: Spielzeug und Kinderleben in Frankfurt 1750–1930 (1984).Google Scholar

¹⁵ Bernt, Walther, Die niederländischen Maler des 17 Jahrhunderts, 3 vols. (Munich, [1948])Google Scholar; Göbel, H., Wandteppiche, 6 vols., (Leipzig, 1923–1934).Google Scholar

¹⁶ Page references to Ariés in this article are to the paperback edition of the English translation published as a ‘Peregrine book’ by Penguin Books (Harmondsworth, 1979).

¹⁷ The tapestry's museum acquisition number is 5668–1859. See Digby, George Wingfield with Hefford, Wendy, Victoria & Albert Museum: the tapestry collection, medieval and renaissance (London, 1980) 33.Google Scholar The triptych's number is W.5–1951. It is thought to depict Henry Holme (d. 1631) with his wife Dorothy and two children.

¹⁸ Jones, John Winter, ‘Observations on the origin of the division of man's life into stages’, Archaeologia 35 (1853), 167–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wackernagel, W., Die Lebensalter, tin Beitrag zur vergleichenden Sitten- und Rechtsgeschichte (Basel, 1862)Google Scholar; Englert, Anton, ‘Die menschlichen Altersstufen in Wort und Bild’, Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, 15 (1905) 399–412Google Scholar; Boll, F., ‘Die Lebensalter’, Neue Jahrbücher für das klassische Altertum 31 (1913) 89–145.Google Scholar

¹⁹ van Heurck, E. H. and Bookenoogen, G. J., Histoire de l'imagerie populaire flamande et de ses rapports avec les imageries étrangères (Brussels, 1910)Google Scholar; Duchartre, P. L. and Saulnier, R., L'imagerie populaire (Paris, 1925)Google Scholar; Bertarelli, Achille, L'imagerie populaire italienne (Paris, 1929).Google Scholar

²⁰ Mistler, J., Blaudez, F. and Jacquemin, A., Epinal et l'imagerie populaire (Paris, 1961) 46–53.Google Scholar

²¹ Toschi, P., Stampe popolari italians (1967)Google Scholar; Adhémar, Jean, Imagerie populaire française (1968)Google Scholar; Brückner, Wolfgang, Populäre Druckgraphik Europas: Deutschland (1969)Google Scholar; Meyer, Maurits de, Imagerie populaire des Pays-Bas: Belgique, Hollande (1970)Google Scholar; Sanpere, Augusti Duran i, Populäre Druckgraphik Europas: Spanien (1971)Google Scholar; Laver, James, Populäre Druckgraphik Europas: England (1972)Google Scholar; Clausen, V. E., Folkelig grqfik i Skandinavien (1973)Google Scholar; Lise, Giorgio, Stampe popolari Lombarde (1976)Google Scholar; Claudon-Adhémar, Catherine, Imagerie populaire russe (1977).Google Scholar These form a series in uniform format; they were published initially (it would appear) by Electa of Milan, but were issued in other languages by other publishers.

²² Die Lebenstreppe: Bilder der menschlichen Lebensalter, Eine Ausstellung des Land-schaftsverbandes Rheinland, Rheinisches Museumsamt, Brauweiler, in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Städtischen Museum Haus Keokkeok, Kleve [shown at Kleve, Kevelaer, Velbert, Wülfrath, Fechen and Blankenheim, 1983–4] (Cologne, [1983]).

²³ Die Lebenstreppe, 115Google Scholar

²⁴ Die Lebenstreppe, 117, no. 21.Google Scholar

²⁵ Die Lebenstreppe, 125, no. 27.Google Scholar

²⁶ Die Lebenstreppe, 240, no. 44.Google Scholar

²⁷ A structuralist approach, though illuminating, produces results that seem valid only within the limited number of prints selected for analysis: see Charraud, Alain, ‘Analyse de la représentation des âges de la vie humaine dans les estampes popularies du XIXe siècle’ Ethnologie française 1 (1971) 59–78.Google Scholar

²⁸ Wilson, , ‘The infancy’, 136.Google Scholar

²⁹ Wilson, , ‘The infancy’, 140.Google Scholar

³⁰ See Waley, Daniel, Later medieval Europe, 2nd ed. (London, 1985) vii–x, 238–52.Google Scholar

³¹ Holmes, U. T., ‘Medieval children’, Journal of Social History 2 (1968) 164–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³² Platelle, Henri, ‘L'enfant et la vie familiale au moyen-âge’, Melanges de science religieuse 39 (1982) 67–85.Google Scholar

³³ Goody, Jack, The development of the family and marriage in Europe (Cambridge, 1983) 153–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁴ Herlihy, David, Medieval households (Cambridge, Mass, and London, 1985).Google Scholar

³⁵ Hahn, Cynthia, ‘“Joseph will perfect, Mary enlighten and Jesus save thee”: the Holy Family as marriage model in the Mérode triptych’, Art Bulletin 68 (1986) 54–65.Google Scholar

³⁶ Randall, Lilian M. C., Images in the margins of Gothic manuscripts (Berkeley, 1966).Google Scholar

³⁷ Maeterlinck, Louis, Le genre satirique, fantastique et licencieux dans la sculpture flamande et wallonne: les miséricordes de stalles (art et folklore) (Paris, 1910)Google Scholar; Remnant, G. L., A catalogue of misericords in Great Britain (Oxford, 1969)Google Scholar; Steppe, J. K., Wereld van vroomheid en satire: laat-gotische koorbanken in Vlanderen (Kasterlee, 1973)Google Scholar; Dorothy, and Kraus, Henry, The hidden world of misericords (London, 1976).Google Scholar

³⁸ Wilson, , ‘The infancy’, 140.Google Scholar

³⁹ In Encyclopaedia of world art. Encyclopedia universale dell'arte, Istituto per la collaborazione culturale, Rome; English ed. 1959–69, ‘Iconography and iconology’.

⁴⁰ Slive, Seymour, ‘Realism and symbolism in seventeenth-century Dutch painting’, Daedalus 91 (1962) 469–500.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Cornell, Henrik, The iconography of the nativity of Christ (Uppsala, 1924) 12.Google Scholar

⁴² Gombrich, E. H., Art and illusion (London, 1960)Google Scholar; and many other works.

⁴³ Bryson, Norman, Word and image: French painting of the ancien régime (Cambridge, 1980).Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Baxandall, Michael, Painting and experience in fifteenth-century Italy: a primer in the social history of pictorial style (Oxford, 1972) 152.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Ackerman, James S. and Carpenter, Rhys, Art and archaeology (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1963) 216.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ An earlier student of representations of the Virgin and Child deserves mention here: Lasareff, Victor, ‘Studies in the iconography of the Virgin’, Art Bulletin 20 (1938) 26–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar This article is used as a weapon against Ariès by Lloyd de Mause, who, in his introduction to his The history of childhood (London, 1976Google Scholar; first published 1974) claims that it provides ‘voluminous evidence that medieval artists could, indeed, paint realistic children’ (5, and note 20 on 57). It does not; de Mause seems to have picked up the referencé mistakenly from a more judicious discussion by one of the other contributors to the book, James Bruce Ross (199, and note 101 on 202).

⁴⁷ Review by Chastel, André in New York review of books 31, no.18 (22 11 1984) 25.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Stone, Lawrence, The past and the present (London, 1981) 223.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Wilson, , ‘The infancy’, 145.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Kunstmann, Josef, The transformation of Eros (London, 1964) 10–13.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Wickhoff, Franz, ‘Die Gestalt Amors in der Phantasie des italienischen Mittelalters’, Jahrbuch der kgl. preussischen Kunstsammlungen 11 (1890) 41–53.Google Scholar

⁵² Kunstmann, , The transformation of Eros, 21.Google Scholar

⁵³ Messerer, Wilhelm, Kinder ohne Alter: Putten in der Kunst der Barockzeit (Regensburg, 1962) passim.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Campana, Augusto, ‘Pueri mingentes nel quattrocento’ in Gabrieli, Vittorio, ed., Friendship's garland: essays presented to Mario Praz (Rome, 1966) i, 31–42.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ In a review in Art Bulletin 49 (1967) 191.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Georges, Robert A., ‘Recreations and games’ in Dorson, Richard ed., Folklore and folklife: an introduction (Chicago and London, 1972) 173–89.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Ariès fostered more work on games: Ariès, Philippe and Margolin, Jean-Claude ed., Les jeux à la Renaissance, Actes du XXIIIe colloque international d'études humanistes, Tours – juillet 1980 (Paris, 1982).Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Burke, Peter, Popular culture in early modern Europe (London, 1978) 85.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Thompson, Stith, The folktale (New York, 1946)Google Scholar, see Four, Part ‘Studying the folktale’.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Hindman, Sandra, ‘Pieter Bruegel's Children's games, Folly, and chance’, Art Bulletin 63 (1981), 447–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brain, Jennifer, Children's games: Traditional European children's playthings, published for the Bethnal Green Museum of Childhood (London, 1984).Google Scholar

⁶¹ Cunnington, Phillis and Buck, Anne, Children's costume in England from the fourteenth to the end of the nineteenth century (London, 1965)Google Scholar; Ewing, Elizabeth, History of children's costume (London, 1977).Google Scholar

⁶² Perrucker, Barbara, ‘Knaben in “Mädchenkleidern”’, Waffen- und Kostumkunde (1975–1976) 71–89, 143–61Google Scholar; I principi bambini: abbigliamento e infanzia nel seicento, catalogue of an exhibition at the Palazzo Pitti, Florence (Florence, 1985)Google Scholar; and perhaps Marshall, Rosalind K., Childhood in seventeenth-century ScotlandGoogle Scholar, catalogue of an exhibition at the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh (Edinburgh, 1976).

⁶³ See Yoder, Don, ‘Folk costume’Google Scholar, in Dorson, , Folklore and folklife 300–1.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Sutton, Peter C., Pieter de Hooch: complete edition (Oxford, 1980) 41.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ See Sutton, , Pieter de Hooch, 67, n. 6.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Sutton, , Pieter de Hooch, 45.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Charles Ford in a review in Art History 8 (1985) 235, 238.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Masters of seventeenth-century Dutch genre painting, catalogue of an exhibition at Philadelphia Museum of Art; Gemäldegalerie, Berlin; Royal Academy of Arts, London (Philadelphia, 1984) 144–5.

⁶⁹ Slive, , ‘Realism and symbolism’.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Tot lering en vermaak, catalogue of an exhibition at the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam (Amsterdam, 1976); Masters of seventeenth-century Dutch genre painting; Brown, Christopher, Scenes of everyday life: Dutch genre painting of the seventeenth century (London, 1984).Google Scholar

⁷¹ Brown, , Scenes of everyday life, 49.Google Scholar

⁷² Sutton, , Pieter de Hooch, 41.Google Scholar

⁷³ Sutton, , Pieter de Hooch, 69, n. 45.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Brown, , Scenes of everyday life.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ It should be noted that the new approach to Dutch genre painting has been extended to genre painting in other countries: Snoep-Reitsma, E., ‘Chardin and the bourgeois ideals of his time’, Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 24 (1973), 147–69, 170–243Google Scholar; MacGregor, Neil, ‘The le Nain brothers and changes in French rural life’, Art History 2 (1979) 401–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁷⁶ Brown, , Scenes of everyday life, 7.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Geisberg, Max, The German single-leaf woodcut 1500–1550, rev. and ed., Strauss, Walter L., 4 vols. (New York, 1974)Google Scholar; Strauss, Walter L., The German single-leaf woodcut 1550–1600, 3 vols. (New York, 1975)Google Scholar; Alexander, Dorothy with Strauss, Walter L., The German single-leaf woodcut 1600–1700, 2 vols. (New York, 1977).Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Scribner, R. W., For the sake of simple folk: popular propaganda for the German Reformation (Cambridge, 1981).Google Scholar

⁷⁹ Coupe, William A., The German illustrated broadsheet in the seventeenth century: historical and iconographical studies, 2 vols. (Baden-Baden, 1966–1967).Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Vovelle, Michel, ‘Iconographie et histoire des mentalités: les enseignements d'un colloque’, Ethnologie Française, 8 (1978) 177–9.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Theopold, Wilhelm, Das Kind in der Votivmalerei (Munich, 1981)Google Scholar; see also his Votwmalerei und Medizin (Munich, 1978).Google Scholar

⁸² Thornton, Peter, Seventeenth-century interior decoration in England, France and Holland (London, 1978) 208–9Google Scholar; Weber-Kellermann, Ingeborg, Die Kindheit (Frankfurt, 1979) 44–5.Google Scholar

⁸³ Rothera, Diana, Antique rattles: some examples from the collection 1748–1920 (Cambridge, privately printed, 1970)Google Scholar; Haskell, Arnold and Lewis, Min, Infantilia: the archaeology of the nursery (London, 1971)Google Scholar; Hampshire, Jack, Prams, mailcarts and bassinets (Tunbridge Wells, 1980).Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Zglinicki, Friedrich von, Die Wiege, volkskundlich – kulturgeschichllich – kunstwissen-schaftlich – medizinhistorisch: eine Wiegen-Typologie (Regensburg, 1979).Google Scholar For more general works see the bibliography in Gelles, Edward, Nursery furniture (London, 1982).Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Hesseltine, William B., ‘The challenge of the artifact’ in Schlereth, Thomas B., ed., Material culture studies in America (Nashville, Tennessee, 1982) 98.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Fleming, E. McClung, ‘The period room as a curatorial publication’, Museum News (06, 1972) 39–43.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ Schlereth, Thomas J., ‘It wasn't that simple’, Museum News (01/02, 1978) 36–44.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Prown, Jules David, ‘Mind in matter: an introduction to material culture theory and method’, Winterthur Portfolio, 17 (1982) 1–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPearce, Susan, ‘Thinking about things’, Museums Journal 85 (1985–1986) 198–201Google Scholar; ‘Objects high and low’, Museums Journal 86 (1986–1987) 79–82Google Scholar; ‘Objects as signs and symbols’, Museums Journal 86 131–5.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Schlereth, , Material culture studies, 59.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Schlereth, , Material culture studies, 349.Google Scholar

⁹¹ Schlereth, , Material culture studies, 71.Google Scholar

⁹² Mitterauer, Michael and Sieder, Reinhard, The European family (Oxford, 1982) 199–200Google ScholarPubMed (‘The home’) and the reference to Faulkner on 202.

⁹³ Segalen, , Love and power, 7, 50, 57, 60, 67, 76, 119.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Thornton, , Seventeenth-century interior decoration.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Anderson, Michael, Approaches to the history of the Western family 1500–1914 (London, 1980) 90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁹⁶ Cowan, Ruth Schwartz, ‘The “industrial revolution” in the home: household technology and social change in the twentieth century’Google Scholar, and Cohen, Lizabeth A., ‘Embellishing a life of labor: an interpretation of the material culture of American working-class homes, 1885–1915’Google Scholar, in Schlereth, , Material culture studies.Google Scholar

⁹⁷ Flandrin, Jean-Louis, Families informer times (Cambridge, 1976) 92–111.Google Scholar