1. Rogers, Seven Treatises (London, 1603), 572. For Rogers's life see M. M. Knappen, Two Elizabethan Puritan Diaries (1933; reprint, Gloucester: Peter Smith, 1966), 17-35. For the chronology of writing Seven Treatises see Knappen, Two Elizabethan Diaries, 69, 71, and Richard Rogers, Seven Treatises, sig. B3 v. These chronologies roughly coincide, as do the chronologies of Rogers's piety given by Rogers and Ezekiel Culverwell in their prefaces to Seven Treatises, B2r, A3v, if Rogers's preface, along with the body of Seven Treatises, is assumed to have been completed somewhat over five years before Seven Treatises was published. Irvonwy Morgan discusses Rogers at length throughout The Godly Preachers of the Elizabethan Church (London: Epsworth, 1965).

2. This article follows the customary practice among English historians of lowercasing “puritanism,” since the term, as it is customarily used, refers to tendencies within the Church of England rather than to a clearly delineated movement.Google Scholar

3. Haller, William, The Rise of Puritanism Or, The Way to the New Jerusalem as Set forth in Pulpit and Press from Thomas Cartwright to John Lilburne and John Milton, 1570–1643 (1938; reprint, New York: Harper and Row, 1957), 36.Google Scholar The pioneers of this experimental style of divinity were all at one point or another involved with religious nonconformity, while a disproportionate number of those who propagated it thereafter were either nonconformists or had strong connections to nonconformists. Hence the use of the sometimes problematic term “puritan” is in this instance fairly straightforward. See Wallace, Dewey D. Jr, Puritans and Predestination: Grace in English Protestant Theology (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), 54.Google Scholar

4. The scholarly literature on the relationship of puritanism, and of second- and thirdgeneration Reformed orthodoxy in general, to the first generation of Reformed divines is vast. For recent discussions and bibliographies, see Muller, Richard A., “Calvin and the ‘Calvinists’: Assessing Continuities and Discontinuities between the Reformation and Orthodoxy,” Calvin Theological Journal 30 (1995): 345–75 and 31 (1996): 125–60,Google Scholarand Coffey, John, Politics, Theology and the British Revolutions: The Mind of Samuel Rutherford (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 117–22. This scholarship sometimes suggests that the shift to introspection was a result of the pastoral need to offer comfort to anxious believers, as the example of Rogers above suggests. The early literature of puritan practical divinity certainly supports this claim, but it also suggests a far broader web of motivation.Google Scholar

5. Yule, George, “Theological Developments in Elizabethan Puritanism,” Journal of Religious History 1 (1960): 16–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and “Developments in English Puritanism in the Context of the Reformation,” Studies in the Puritan Tradition: A Joint Supplement of the Congregational Historical Society “Transactions” and the Presbyterian Historical Journal (Chelmsford: J. H. Clarke, 1964), 8–27; Christopher Hill, Society and Puritanism in Pre-Revolutionary England, 2d ed. (New York: Shocken Books, 1967), 501–6.Google ScholarThe argument is widely taken as a given. For examples of its deployment see Collinson, Patrick, “Towards a Broader Understanding of the Early Dissenting Tradition,” in The Dissenting Tradition, ed. Cole, C. Robert (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1975), 12, 15, and The Elizabethan Puritan Movement (Oxford, 1967), 433;Google ScholarStaloff, Darren, The Making of an American Thinking Class: Intellectuals and Intelligentsia in Puritan Massachusetts (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 202–3;Google ScholarSheils, W. J., The Puritans in the Diocese of Peterborough 1558–1610 (Northampton: Northamptonshire Record Society, 1979), 66–67, 144–45.Google ScholarThe argument is a high elaboration of a contemporary attack on puritan Sabbatarianism. See the preface to Thomas Rogers, The Faith, Doctrine, and Religion … 39 Articles (Cambridge, 1607), par. 20.Google ScholarBut see Lake, Peter, Moderate Puritans and the Elizabethan Church Settlement (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), chap. 7, which documents the presence of what was to become puritan practical divinity at Cambridge University in the 1580s before the collapse of the classis movement.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

6. Dwight, Theodore, “‘Federal Theology’ and the ‘National Covenant’: An Elizabethan Case Study,” Church History 61 (1992): 397.Google Scholar

7. Dering, Edward, XXVII Lectures, or readings, upon part of the Epistle written to the Hebrues in workes, M. Derings (London, 1614), n.p. (the passage is found in “The fourteenth Lecture, upon the residue of the 6. verse [of the 3rd chap.]”);Google ScholarMore, John, A bryefe and necessary Catechisme (London, 1577) sig. Biir.Google ScholarOn this very influential catechism see Collinson, Patrick, Godly People: Essays on English Protestantism and Puritanism (London: Hambledon, 1983), 298.Google ScholarEusebius Paget used the phrase in his catechism, Short Questions and Amsweres, Conteyning the Summe of Christian Religion (London, 1579), sig. C4v.Google Scholar There were scholastic ways to argue for both a powerful sense of assurance and its fragility at the same time, and early Reformed divines did so. This ambidextrousness allows scholars to dismiss the importance of the change in ministerial attitude outlined below. See Beeke, Joel R., Assurance of Faith: Calvin, English Puritanism, and the Dutch Second Reformation (New York: Peter Lang, 1991), chap. 4. But since those ministers making the change perceived themselves as engaged in something new (see below), it seems safest to assume that they knew what they were about.Google Scholar

8. Foxe, John, A Sermon of Christ crucified, preached at Paules Crosse the Friday before Easter, commonly called Goodfryday (London, 1570), sig. Siiiv;Google ScholarChaderton, Laurence, An Excellent and Godly Sermon most needefullfor this time, wherein we live in all securitie and sinne, to the great dishonour of God, and contempt of his holy word (London, 1578?), sig. Diiv;Google ScholarKnewstub, John, Lectures of John Knewstub upon the twentieth Chapter of Exodues, and certeine other places of Scripture (1577), 39;Google ScholarGreenham, Richard, The Workes (London, 1605), 53; Knewstub, Lectures, 39.Google ScholarSee also Green, Ian, The Christian's ABC: Catechisms and Catechizing in England c. 1530–1740 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1996), 388–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

9. Rogers, , Seven Treatises, 201.Google Scholar

10. Rogers, , Seven Treatises, 56.Google Scholar

11. Knewstub, , Lectures, 17, 44, sig. Par. ii v, P Pr-v.Google Scholar

12. Chaderton, , Excellent and Godly Sermon, sig. Ciii 3r;Google ScholarGifford, George, Foure sermons: uponthe seven chiefe vertues of faith (London, 1582), sig. A5 i v.Google Scholar

13. Scarisbrick, J. J., The Reformation and the English People (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984);Google ScholarHaigh, Christopher, English Reformations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993);Google ScholarWhiting, Robert, The Blind Devotion of the People (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

14. Rogers, , Seven Treatises, 575;Google ScholarPerkins, , Workes, 1: 284, sig. A2r.Google Scholar

15. Andrews, Bartimeus, Certaine Verie worthie, godly and profitable Sermons, upon the fifth Chapter of the Songs of Solomon (London, 1583), 52–53;Google ScholarRogers, , Seven Treatises, 99.Google Scholar

16. Perkins, , Workes, 1: 425.Google Scholar

17. Haigh, , English Reformations, 279–81, has a convenient summary of these disruptions.Google Scholar

18. Andrewes, , Lectures, 194–95; Rogers, Seven Treatises, 130.Google ScholarWhite, B. R., The English Separatist Tradition From the Marian Martyrs to the Pilgrim Fathers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 85.Google ScholarFor lay separatist activity in Essex in the 1580s, see Collinson, , Godly People, 12–13.Google Scholar

19. Fulke, William, A comfortable Sermon of Faith, in temptations and afflictions (London, 1574), sig. Eii r-v;Google ScholarGreenham, Richard, The Workes (London, 1605), 174, 223–24, 766.Google ScholarSee also Parker, Kenneth L. and Carlson, Eric J., “Practical Divinity”: The Works and Life of Revd Richard Greenham (Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 1988).Google Scholar

20. Chaderton, , Excellent and Godly Sermon, sig. Ciii 3r.Google Scholar

21. Greenham, , Workes, 264, 267–68;Google ScholarSparke, Thomas, A Short Treatise, very comfortable for all those Christians that be troubled and diquieted in thyr consciences with the sight of their owne infirmities (London, 1580), sig. AV v-AV ir, BViiir, Biir;Google ScholarUdall, John, Amendment of Life (London, 1584), sig. Cii v-r.Google Scholar

22. For an introduction to the extensive scholarly literature on Perkins, see Porter, H. C., Reformation and Reaction in Tudor Cambridge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958), 288–313;Google ScholarBreward, Ian, ed., The Works of William Perkins (Abingdon: Sutton Courtenay, 1970), 80–99;Google ScholarMuller, Richard A., “Perkins' A Golden Chaine: Predestinarian System or Schematized Ordo Salutis?” Sixteenth Century Journal 9 (1978): 69–81;CrossRefGoogle ScholarKendall, R. T., Calvin and English Calvinism to 1649 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), 51–76;Google ScholarMuller, Richard A., Christ and the Decrees: Christology and Predestination in Reformed Theology from Calvin to Perkins (Durham: Labyrinth, 1986), chap. 6;Google ScholarMcGiffert, Michael, “The Perkinsian Moment of Federal Theology,” Calvin Theological Journal 29 (1994): 117–48.Google Scholar

23. Porter, Reformation and Reaction, 181, 192.Google Scholar

24. On the role of the English universities in forging puritan policies, see Collinson, Elizabethan Puritan Movement, 122ff.Google Scholar

25. Wright, Louis B., Middle-Class Culture in Elizabethan England (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1935), 281–84.Google Scholar

26. See, for example, notes of Chaderton sermons from 1590–91 that closely parallel Perkins's contemporaneous writings in Lake, Moderate Puritans, 158–59.Google Scholar

27. Perkins, , Workes, 1: 599, 241.Google Scholar

28. Eaton, Michael A., Baptism with the Spirit: The Teaching of Dr. Martyn Lloyd-Jones (Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1989), chap. 1;Google ScholarCalvin, John, The Epistles of Paul the Apostle to the Romans and to the Thessalonians, trans. Mackenzie, Ross (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1973), 167.Google Scholar

29. Beza, Theodore, A Booke of Christian Questions and Answers (London, 1578), fol. 87v;Google ScholarPerkins, , Workes, 1: 369.Google Scholar

30. Perkins, , Workes, 1: 286, 369.Google Scholar

31. Perkins, , Workes, 1: 366–67.Google Scholar

32. The unconscious hypocrite was a structural necessity in Reformed doctrine, needed for explaining the gap between theoretical perseverance of the saints and the reality of backsliding. It can be found roughly as Perkins described it, albeit not in such an elaborated fashion, in continental theologians on whom Perkins built, such as Calvin, Beza and Ursinus. For the terrifying potential in Calvin's scattered remarks on unconscious hypocrites see Foxgrover, David, “Temporary Faith' and the Certainty of Salvation,” Calvin Theological Journal 15 (1980): 220–32.Google ScholarUrsinus, Zacharius, The Summe of Christian Religion (Oxford, 1587), 287.Google ScholarFor Beza on hypocrites, see A Brief Declaration of the Chiefe Points of Christian Religion (London, 1575).Google ScholarAndrews, , Certaine … Sermons, 260; Chaderton, Sermon, sig. EIr;Google ScholarGifford, George, A Sermon on the Parable of the Sower (London, 1582), sig. Bv iiir.Google Scholar

33. Perkins, , Workes, 1: sig. Hhr.Google Scholar

34. Perkins, , Workes, 1: 358–59.Google Scholar

35. Rogers, , Seven Treatises, 45, 47;Google ScholarPerkins, , Workes, 1: 425.Google Scholar

36. Perkins, , Workes, 1: 409, 662, 642.Google Scholar

37. Perkins, , Workes, 1: 286, 766, 372–74, 286, 115.Google Scholar

38. Perkins, , Workes, 1: sig. Hhr.Google Scholar

39. Rogers, , Seven Treatises, 308, 24.Google Scholar

40. Greenham, , Workes, 266;Google ScholarDent, Arthur, The Plaine Mans Path-may to Heaven (London, 1601), 259.Google Scholar

41. As a starting point to the vast literature on covenant theology see McGiffert, Michael, “Grace and Works: The Rise and Division of Covenant Theology in Elizabethan Puritanism,” Harvard Theological Review 75 (1982): 463–502;Google ScholarStoever, William K. B., “A Faire and Easie Way to Heaven”: Covenant Theology and Antinomianism in Early Massachusetts (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1978);Google ScholarRohr, John Von, The Covenant of Grace in Puritan Thought (Atlanta: Scholars, 1986);Google Scholarand Cohen, Charles Lloyd, God's Caress: The Psychology of Puritan Religious Experience (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996). The works cited in n. 3 provide further bibliographies.Google Scholar

42. See Firmin, Giles, The Real Christian, or a Treatise of Effectual Calling (London, 1670), sig. Cv,Google Scholarand the preface to Rogers, John, A Treatise of Faith, 3d ed. (London, 1629), for the change of mind of one important minister.Google Scholar For Arthur Hildersham's similar evolution see Kendall, R. T., Calvin and English Calvinism to 1649 (Oxford, 1979), 91–92.Google ScholarFor discussions of the “direct” and “reflex” acts of faith by which ministers explained the separation of faith and assurance see Stoever, “Faire and Easie,” 132–37; von Rohr, Covenant of Grace, 156–57. See the Westminster Confession of Faith, chap. 8, par. 3.Google Scholar

43. Seaver, Paul S., Wallington's World: A Puritan Artisan in Seventeenth-century London (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985), 18;Google ScholarMcGiffert, Michael, ed., God's Plot: Puritan Spirituality in Thomas Shepard's Cambridge (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994), 25;Google ScholarWebster, Tom, “Writing to Redundancy: Approaches to Spiritual Journals and Early Modern Spirituality,” The Historical Journal 39 (1996): 33–56;CrossRefGoogle ScholarWallace, , Puritans and Predestination, 51–52;Google ScholarWatkins, Owen D., The Puritan Experience (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972), 11. But see Cohen, God's Caress.Google Scholar

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