Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-vsgnj Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-17T11:48:21.395Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Defining Man as Animal Religiosum in English Religious Writing ca. 1650–ca. 1700

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 December 2019

R. J. W. Mills
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article surveys the emergence and usage of the redefinition of man not as animal rationale (rational animal) but as animal religiosum (religious animal) by numerous English theologians between 1650 and 1700. Across the continuum of English Protestant thought, human nature was being redescribed as unique due to its religious, not primarily its rational, capabilities. This article charts said appearance as a contribution to debates over man's relationship with God; then its subsequent incorporation into the discussion over the theological consequences of arguments in favor of animal rationality, as well as its uses in anti-atheist apologetics; and then the sudden disappearance of the definition of man as animal religiosum at the beginning of the eighteenth century. In doing so, the article hopes to make a useful contribution to our understanding of changing early modern understandings of human nature by reasserting the significance of theological writing in the dispute over the relationship between humans and beasts. As a consequence, it offers a more wide-ranging account of man as animal religiosum than the current focus on “Cambridge Platonism” and “Latitudinarianism” allows.

Type
Articles
Information
Church History , Volume 88 , Issue 4 , December 2019 , pp. 925 - 952
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Church History 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Much of the research for this article was funded by a Leverhulme Trust Early Career Fellowship. I apologize to Alexandra Chadwick, Barnaby Crowcroft, Michael Edwards, Felicity Loughlin, and Sarah Hutton for having to wade through earlier drafts, but am grateful for their helpful commentary. Richard Serjeantson, Dimitri Levitin, and Angus Gowland offered judicious dissections of subsequent drafts which improved the piece immeasurably. They probably, however, will be skeptical of what remains. All errors of fact and interpretation no doubt still present, despite their efforts, are my responsibility alone.

References

1 The most commonly cited source was Porphyry's Isagoge, the well-known introduction to Aristotle's Organon. Strictly speaking, man as animal rationale did not appear in Aristotle's works. For instances of use in popular university logic textbooks, see Sanderson, Robert, Logicae artis compendium (Oxford, 1615), 13–14Google Scholar; Smith, Samuel, Aditus ad logicam (London, 1613), 13Google Scholar; Burgersdijk, Francis, Institutionum logicarum synopsis (Amsterdam, 1659), 19Google Scholar; Burgersdijk, Francis, Institutionum logicarum libri duo (Amsterdam, 1660), 49Google Scholar; and Aldrich, Henry, Artis logicae compendium (Oxford, 1696), 10Google Scholar.

2 R. W. Serjeantson, “The Soul,” in The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy in Early Modern Europe, ed. Desmond M. Clarke and Catherine Wilson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 119–141; Fudge, Erica, Perceiving Animals: Humans and Beasts in Early Modern English Culture (Basingstroke: Macmillan, 2000), 1–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fudge, Erica, Brutal Reasoning: Animals, Rationality, and Humanity in Early Modern England (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2006)Google Scholar; and Wolloch, Nathaniel, Subjugated Animals: Animals and Anthropocentricism in Early Modern European Culture (Amherst, N.Y.: Humanity, 2006)Google Scholar.

3 Senior, Matthew, “The Souls of Men and Beasts, 1630–1764,” in A Cultural History of Animals, vol. 4, In the Age of Enlightenment, ed. Senior, Matthew (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 23–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Floridi, Luciano, “Scepticism and Animal Rationality: The Fortune of Chrysippus’ Dog in the History of Western Thought,” Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie 79, no. 1 (1997): 27–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wilson, Margaret, “Animal Ideas,” Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association 69, no. 2 (November 1995): 7–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harrison, Peter, “The Virtues of Animals in Seventeenth-Century Thought,” Journal of the History of Ideas 59, no. 3 (July 1998): 463–484CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Almond, Philip C., Adam and Eve in Seventeenth-Century Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 110–142CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Thomas, Keith, Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England 1500–1800 (London: Penguin, 1983), 137Google Scholar.

4 See, for example, Ellenzweig, Sarah, The Fringes of Belief: English Literature, Ancient Heresy and the Politics of Freethinking 1660–1760 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2008)Google Scholar.

5 Though, see Manning, Gillian, “Rochester's Satyr Against Reason and Mankind and Contemporary Religious Debate,” Seventeenth Century 8, no. 1 (Spring 1993): 99–121CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Despite its title, McWhir, Anne, “Animal Religiosum and the Witches in ‘A Voyage to the Houyhnhnms,’” English Studies in Canada 12, no. 4 (December 1986): 375–386CrossRefGoogle Scholar is not relevant to this article.

6 See, for example, Pailin, David, “Reconciling Theory and Fact: The Problem of ‘Other Faiths’ in Lord Herbert and the Cambridge Platonists,” in Platonism at the Origins of Modernity: Studies on Platonism and Early Modern Philosophy, ed. Hedley, Douglas and Hutton, Sarah (Dordrecht: Springer, 2008), 93–111Google Scholar, esp. 94–97.

7 The most significant contributions in this regard are Micheletti, Mario, Animal capax religionis: Da Benjamin Whichcote a Shaftesbury (Perugia: Benucci, 1984)Google Scholar; and Micheletti, Mario, I platonici di Cambridge: Il pensiero etico e religioso (Brescia: Morcelliana, 2011)Google Scholar. See also Micheletti, Mario, Dai latitudinari a Hume (Perugia: Benucci, 1997)Google Scholar.

8 Spurr, John, “‘Rational Religion’ in Restoration England,” Journal of the History of Ideas 49, no. 4 (October–December 1988): 563–585CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Spurr, John, “‘Latitudinarianism’ and the Restoration Church,” Historical Journal 31, no. 1 (March 1988): 61–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Spurr, John, The Restoration Church of England, 1646–1689 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1991), 394–396CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 The most adept defence of the categories’ coherence on philosophical grounds is set out in Rivers, Isabel, Reason, Grace, and Sentiment: A Study of the Language of Religion and Ethics in England, 1660–1780, vol. 1, Whichcote to Wesley (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991Google Scholar. See also Hutton, Sarah, “Eine Cambridge-Konstellation? Perspektiven für eine Konstellationsforschung zu den Platonikern von Cambridge,” in Konstellationsforschung, ed. Mulsow, M. and Stamm, M. (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 2005), 349–358Google Scholar. For a recent critique, see Levitin, Dmitri, Ancient Wisdom in the Age of the New Science: Histories of Philosophy in England, c. 1640–1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 14–16, 126–138CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Spurr, “‘Rational Religion,’” 564. Spurr does not discuss the topic of animal rationality.

11 Thomassin, Louis, La méthode d'étudier et d'enseigner chrétiennement et solidement les historiens profanes (Paris, 1693), 1:461–462Google Scholar. On Thomassin, see Camp, Henry Van, “La ‘Philosophie chrétienne’ de Louis Thomassin, de l'Oratoire (1619–1695),” Revue néoscolastique de Philosophie, 2nd ser., 54 (May 1937): 242–266CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and esp. Bosco, Domenico, “Rigorismo e perfezione appuntio sull'etica di Louis Thomassin,” Rivista di Filosofia Neo-Scolastica 80, no. 1 (January–March 1988): 22–62Google Scholar.

12 Thomassin, Louis, La méthode d'étudier et d'enseigner chrétiennement les lettres humaines (Paris, 1681), 365–66, 410–411Google Scholar.

13 See also Beurrier, Paul, La perpétuité de la foy et de la religion chrétienne (Paris, 1680), 394, 442, 507Google Scholar where man is defined in line with “les Anciens” as “un animal religieux.”

14 John Evelyn to Edward Thurland, 20 January 1656, in The Letterbooks of John Evelyn, ed. Douglas Chambers and David Galbraith (London: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 1:193.

15 For example, Firmin, Giles, The Real Christian (London, 1670), 190Google Scholar; and Harley, Sir Edward, An Humble Essay towards the Settlement of Peace and Truth in the Church (London, 1681), 9Google Scholar. See also Quantin, Jean-Louis, The Church of England and Christian Antiquity: The Construction of a Confessional Identity in the 17th Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 17–18, 66–68, 312Google Scholar.

16 Wilkins, John, Of the Principles and Duties of Natural Religion, ed. Tillotson, John (London, 1675), 289Google Scholar; and Fiddes, Richard, Theologia speculativa (London, 1718), 1:110–111Google Scholar.

17 See also Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes 1.60. See, for example, Saunders, Richard, Saunders Physiognomie, 2nd ed. (London, 1671), 4Google Scholar; Charleton, Walter, Exercitationes pathologicae (London, 1661), 1Google Scholar; and Wolveridge, James, Speculum matricis hybernicum (London, 1670), a3vGoogle Scholar.

18 Jean Calvin, Institutes of Christian Religion 1.3.3.

19 Arminius, Jacobus, “Fifth Oration,” in The Works of James Arminius, ed. Nicols, James (London, 1825), 1:374Google Scholar.

20 Micheletti, Animal capax religionis, 51.

21 Mortimer, Sarah, Reason and Religion in the English Revolution: The Challenge of Socinianism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 2–3, 13–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22 Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, De veritate (1624; repr., London, 1633), 174–175; and Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, De veritate, trans. M. H. Carré (Bristol: J. W. Arrowsmith, 1937), 293–296. On Herbert's significance, see Serjeantson, R. W., “Herbert of Cherbury before Deism: The Early Reception of the De veritate,” Seventeenth Century 16, no. 2 (2001): 217–238CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 Campanella, Tommaso, Atheismus triumphatus (Rome, 1631), 67Google Scholar.

24 Roberts, James Deotis, From Puritanism to Platonism in Seventeenth Century England (The Hague: Marinus Nijhoff, 1968), 13–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Micheletti, Animal capax religionis, 55–57.

25 Whichcote, Benjamin, Theophorymena Dogmata: or, Some Select Notions of that Learned and Reverend Divine (London, 1685), 85–86Google Scholar. For an account of Whichcote's non-Platonist scholastic naturalism, see Parkin, Jon, Science, Religion, and Politics in Restoration England: Richard Cumberland's De Legibus Naturae (Woodbridge: Royal Historical Society, 1999), 75–80Google Scholar.

26 Whichcote, Select Notions, 96, 88, 85.

27 Whichcote, Select Notions, 92, 99.

28 See Roberts, Puritanism to Platonism, 66, 83.

29 Whichcote, Select Notions, 85.

30 Micheletti, Animal capax religionis, 55–56; Micheletti, Il platonici de Cambridge, 72–73; and Beiser, Frederick C., The Sovereignty of Reason: The Defense of Rationality in the Early English Enlightenment (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996), 159–165CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31 I hope the reader will excuse the following lengthy untranslated Latin quotations, but they indicate that the specific wording of animal religiosum and animal capax religionis were not present in the commonly cited sources. The two most alluded to passages from chapter 7 of Lactatnius, De ira dei, were: “Solus enim sapetientia instructus est, ut religionem solus intelligat; et haec est hominis atque mutorum, vel praecipua, vel sola distantia” and “apparet solam esse religionem, cujus in mutis nec vestigium aliquod, nec ulla suspicion inveniri potest.” The quotation from book 3, chapter 10 of Lactantius's Divinarum institutionum ran: “Summum igitur hominis bonum in sola religione est; name caetera, etiam quae putantur esse homini propria, in caeteris quoque animalibus reperiuntur.” The key passage from book 1, section 8 of Cicero's De legibus ran: “Itaque ex tot generibus nullum est animal praeter hominem, quod habeat notitiam aliquam dei.”

32 Lactantius, Divine institutes 2.1. See, similarly, Lactantius, De ira dei 14; and Lactantius, De opifico dei 8.

33 Whichcote, Select Notions, title page.

34 Whichcote, Benjamin, Select Sermons of Dr. Whichcot, ed. Ashley, Anthony Cooper (London, 1698), arGoogle Scholar; and Whichcote, Benjamin, Moral and Religious Aphorisms, ed. Salter, Samuel (London, 1753), xi–xiiGoogle Scholar. See also Roberts's similar assessment in Puritanism to Platonism, 273–274.

35 Whichcote, Moral and Religious Aphorisms, nos. 457, 291, 381, 791, 983, 211, 554, 147, 855, 854, 845, 1004.

36 Whichcote, Select Sermons of Dr. Whichcot, 59–60.

37 On Smith, see Micheletti, Mario, Il pensiero religioso di John Smith, platonico di Cambridge (Padova, 1976)Google Scholar; and Lagrée, Jacqueline, “John Smith et le Portique,” in The Cambridge Platonists in Philosophical Context, ed. Rogers, G. A. J., Vienne, J. M., and Zarka, Y. C. (London: Kluwer Academic, 1997), 79–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 Smith, John, Select Discourses (London, 1660)Google Scholar.

39 On this discourse, see Micheletti, John Smith, 288–313.

40 Porphyry, Isagoge 7.

41 Barrow, Isaac, Theological Works (Cambridge, 1859), 5:229Google Scholar.

42 Fowler, Edward, Reflections upon the Late Examination of the Discourse of the Descent of the Man-Christ Jesus from Heaven (London, 1706), 26Google Scholar; and Burton, Hezekiah, Several Discourses (London, 1684), 41–42Google Scholar. See also Harley, Humble Essay, 9.

43 Smith, Select Discourses, 377.

44 Smith, Select Discourses, 388–389. See also Micheletti, John Smith, 293; Micheletti, Animal capax religionis, 57; and Lagrée, “John Smith,” 83–84.

45 Smith, Select Discourses, 388. See also Micheletti, Animal capax religionis, 42–45.

46 Smith, Select Discourses, 389.

47 Micheletti, John Smith, 310; and Lagrée, “John Smith,” 86–89.

48 Rust, George, A Discourse of the Use of Reason in Matters of Religion, ed. Hallywell, Henry (London, 1683), 26Google Scholar.

49 I am grateful to Dmitri Levitin for pointing this out to me.

50 Rust, Discourse of the Use of Reason, 38.

51 Rivers, Reason, Grace, and Sentiment, 1:63–66, 77–87; and Beiser, Sovereignty of Reason, 136–137.

52 Cf. Micheletti, Animal capax religionis.

53 Pordage, John, Theologia Mystica (London, 1683), 103–104Google Scholar. Pordage was removed from his living because of his practice of purportedly communicating with spirits. See Henry Dodwell to Francis Lee 23 August 1698, MS Cherry 22, fols. 59–61, Bodleian Library, Oxford.

54 For example, Hobbes, Thomas, Leviathan (London, 1651), 207Google Scholar.

55 Pierce, Thomas, Decad of Caveats to the People of England of General Use in All Times (London, 1679), 2–3Google Scholar. See also Scrivener, Matthew, A Course of Divinity (London, 1674), 1–3Google Scholar.

56 Leigh, Edward, A Treatise of Religion (London, 1656), 1Google Scholar.

57 Ussher, James, A Body of Divinity (London, 1645), 3Google Scholar.

58 Arrowsmith, John, Armilla Catechetica (Cambridge, 1659), 73Google Scholar.

59 Arrowsmith, Armilla Catechetica, 74.

60 Baxter, Richard, The True and Only Way of Concord of All the Christian Churches (London, 1680), 270Google Scholar.

61 Charnock, Stephen, Discourses upon the Existence and Attributes of God, ed. Symington, William (1682; New York, 1856), 1:30Google Scholar.

62 Howe, John, The Living Temple: or, A designed improvement of that notion that a good man is the temple of God (London, 1702), 1:27Google Scholar.

63 Howe, Living Temple, 1:28–29.

64 These distinctions might not necessarily map neatly onto the catgories of Anglican and Nonconformist. For an argument defending the existence of a healthy Reformed tradition within the Church of England between 1660 and 1714, see Hampton, Stephen, Anti-Arminians: The Anglican Reformed Tradition from Charles II to George I (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), esp. 1–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65 Fleming, Robert, Confirmation of Religion (London, 1693), 18Google Scholar; Ross, Alexander, Pansebeia: A View of All the Religions, 2nd ed. (London, 1655), A7vGoogle Scholar; Leighton, Robert, Prælectiones Theologicæ, ed. Fall, J. (London, 1693), 42–43Google Scholar; Royse, George, A Sermon Preach'd before the King and Queen at White-Hall, on the 28th of December, 1690 (London, 1690), 10Google Scholar; and Cockburn, John, Jacob's View, or, Man's Felicity and Duty in Two Parts (London, 1696), 168Google Scholar.

66 Charnock, Discourses upon the Existence and Attributes of God, 1:30; Howard, John, The Evil of Our Dayes (London, 1698), 17–18Google Scholar; Pierce, Decad of Caveats, 3; and The Counter-Plot, or, The Close Conspiracy of Atheism and Schism Opened and so Defeated (London, 1680), 6.

67 Wilson, W., A Sermon Preached before the Judge as the Assizes held at Nottingham (London, 1689), 7–8Google Scholar. See also Crossman, Samuel, The Young Mans Monitor (London, 1664), 91Google Scholar; and A Letter of Advice to a Gentlemen of the Church of Rome (Dublin, 1709), 9.

68 Hildesley, Mark, Religio Jurisprudentis (London, 1685), 22Google Scholar, see also 57.

69 Patrick, Simon, A Discourse Concerning Prayer (London, 1693), 138Google Scholar; Baxter, True and Only Way of Concord, 270; and Harrington, James, The Oceana of James Harrington and His Other Works, ed. Toland, John (London, 1700), 500Google Scholar.

70 Cf. Micheletti, Animal capax religionis, 38–39.

71 S., M., A Philosophical Discourse of the Nature of Rational and Irrational Souls (London, 1695), 34Google Scholar.

72 The Athenian Mercury, no. 18, 11 February 1693.

73 Wilkins, John, A Sermon Preached Before the King upon the Twenty Seventh of February, 1669/70 (London, 1670), 18Google Scholar.

74 Wilkins, Principles and Duties.

75 Rivers, Reason, Grace, and Sentiment, 1:44.

76 Wilkins, Sermon Preached Before the King, 14–15; and Wilkins, Principles and Duties, 288.

77 Wilkins, Principles and Duties, 292; and Wilkins, Sermon Preached Before the King, 18–19.

78 Wilkins, Principles and Duties, 1.

79 See Rust, Discourse of the Use of Reason, 15. On Hallywell, see Lewis, Marilyn A., “Pastoral Platonism in the Writings of Henry Hallywell (1641–1703),” Seventeenth Century 28, no. 4 (December 2013): 441–463CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

80 Hale, Sir Matthew, The Primitive Origination of Mankind (London, 1677)Google Scholar; and Cromartie, Alan, Sir Matthew Hale, 1609–1676: Law, Religion and Natural Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1995), 139–192CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

81 Shapiro, Barbara J., John Wilkins, 1614–1672: An Intellectual Biography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 176Google Scholar.

82 Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, 16, 63.

83 Hale, Sir Matthew, “A Discourse of Religion” (unpublished manuscript, ca. 1670s), in The Works, Moral and Religious, of Sir Matthew Hale, ed. Thirwall, Thomas (London, 1805), 1:288Google Scholar.

84 Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, 63.

85 Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, 363; and Hale, Sir Matthew, Contemplations Moral and Divine (London, 1676), 17Google Scholar.

86 Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, 365.

87 Baxter, Richard, Richard Baxter's Dying Thoughts upon Phil. I. 23 (London, 1683), 38Google Scholar. See also Laton, Henry, A Search after Souls and Spiritual Operations in Man (London, 1700), 41Google Scholar.

88 Baxter, Dying Thoughts, 14.

89 Baxter, Dying Thoughts, 2.

90 Baxter, Dying Thoughts, 4.

91 Baxter, Dying Thoughts, 20, 37–38.

92 On Cureau, see especially Edwards, Michael “Marin Cureau de la Chambre and Pierre Chanet on Time and the Passions of the Soul,” History of European Ideas 38, no. 2 (2012): 200–217CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Guidi, Simone, “L'angelo e la bestia: Metafisica dell'istinto, tra Pierre Chanet e Marin Cureau de La Chambre,” Lo Sguardo—Rivista di Filosofia 18, no. 2 (2015): 233–258Google Scholar; and Wild, Markus, “Marin Cureau de la Chambre on the Natural Cognition of the Vegetative Soul: An Early Modern Theory of Instinct,” Vivarium 46, no. 3 (2008): 443–461CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

93 Fowler, C. F., Descartes on the Human Soul: Philosophy and the Demands of Christian Doctrine (London: Kluwer Academic, 1999), 114–160CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Strickland, Lloyd, “God's Creatures? Divine Nature and the Status of Animals in the Early Modern Beast-Machine Controversy,” International Journal of Philosophy and Theology 74, no. 4 (2013): 291–309CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Morris, Katherine, “Bêtes-machines” in Descartes’ Natural Philosophy, ed. Gaukroger, Stephen, Schuster, John, and Sutton, John (London: Routledge, 2000), 401–419Google Scholar; and Thomson, Ann, “Animals, Humans, Machines and Thinking Matter,” Early Science and Medicine 15, no. 1–2 (2010): 3–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

94 Descartes, René, Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, ed. Weissman, David (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996), part 5, p. 36Google Scholar.

95 Richard Baxter, “Of the nature and immortality of human souls,” ca. 1669–1672, Richard Baxter Collection, DWL/RB/iv.76, Dr Williams's Library, London.

96 Hale-Baxter Correspondence, ca. 1672–1673, MS 3499, fol. 113v, Lambeth Palace Library, London.

97 Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, 16. On Patrizi, see Blum, Paul Richard, “Francesco Patrizi's Principles of Psychology” in Francesco Patrizi: Philosopher of the Renaissance, ed. Blum, Paul Richard and Nejeschleba, Tomáš (Olomouci: Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci, 2014), 185–212Google Scholar; and Muccillo, M., “Il ‘De humana philosophia’ di Francesco Patrizi da Cherso nel Codice Barberiniano Greco 180,” in Miscellanea Bibliothecae Vaticana (Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1990), 281–307Google Scholar, esp. 293–294.

98 Montaigne, Michel de, An Apology for Raymond Sebond, ed. Screech, M. A. (1575–1580; London: Penguin, 1987)Google Scholar; and Charron, Pierre, On Wisdom, trans. Lennard, Samson (1601; London, 1608), 101–112Google Scholar.

99 See the praise in Jean Balzac to Cureau de la Chambre, 15 September 1645, in Balzac, Jean-Louis Geuz, Balzac's Remaines, or, His Last Letters (London, 1658), 78–80Google Scholar; and Bayle, Pierre, A General Dictionary, Historical and Critical, trans. Bernard, John Peter, Birch, Thomas, Lockman, John, and Sale, George (London, 1734–41), 8:762Google Scholar.

100 de la Chambre, Marin Cureau, “Quelle est la Connoissance des Bestes,” in Les Caractères des Passions, 2nd ed. (1645; Paris, 1663); 2:460–542Google Scholar.

101 de la Chambre, Marin Cureau, A Discourse of the Knowledg of Beasts, trans. Newcomb, Thomas (1648; London, 1657), 5Google Scholar.

102 Cureau, “Quelle est la Connoissance des Bestes,” 2:540. Unless otherwise noted, all translations are my own.

103 Cureau, “La Connoissance des Bestes,” 2:542.

104 Edwards, “Time and the Passions,” 208.

105 Cureau, “Knowledg of Beasts,” 18; and Cureau, “La Connoissance des Bestes,” 2:482–483.

106 Cureau, “Knowledg of Beasts,” 195. See also Cureau, “La Connoissance des Bestes,” 2:474.

107 Cureau, “Knowledg of Beasts,” 208. See also Cureau, “La Connoissance des Bestes,” 2:485–486.

108 Cureau, “Knowledg of Beasts,” 7. See also Guidi, “L'angelo e la bestia,” 247–248, 252.

109 Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, 50.

110 Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, 44, see also 48, 52.

111 Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, 48.

112 Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, 50.

113 Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, 51.

114 Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, 52, see also 55.

115 Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, 56. Hale gave an example from Cureau's Traité about the sort of artificial logic the Frenchman said a horse would be capable of: “This green is grass / this grass is good to eat / therefore this green is good to eat.”

116 Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, 55.

117 Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, 61.

118 For example, Baxter, Richard, The Reasons of the Christian Religion (London, 1667), 523Google Scholar; Baxter, Richard, More Reasons for the Christian Religion (London, 1672), 68Google Scholar; and Baxter, Dying Thoughts, 19–20.

119 Baxter, More Reasons, 68.

120 Baxter, Dying Thoughts, 38.

121 Sir Blackmore, Richard, An essay upon the immortality of the soul (Dublin, 1716), 39Google Scholar; Weston, Edward, The Englishman directed in the choice of his religion (London, 1729), 9Google Scholar; Jackson, Lawrence, An examination of a book intitled The true gospel of Jesus Christ asserted [. . .] (London, 1739), 216Google Scholar; and Philalethes, , A Philosophical Dissertation upon the Inlets to Human Knowledge (Dublin, 1740), 61Google Scholar. See also Mather, Cotton, Reasonable Religion: or, the Truths of the Christian Religion Demonstrated (London, 1713), 2Google Scholar.

122 For example, [Addison, Joseph], The Spectator (London), no. 201, 20 October 1711Google Scholar; and The Weekly Miscellany, no. 6, 20 January 1733, repeated in “A View of the Weekly Disputes and Essays in this month,” The Gentleman's Magazine, January 1733. See also The British Apollo (London, 1726), 3:1029–1029 (a pagination error means that p. 1029 is repeated).

123 Buickerood, James G., “The Natural History of the Understanding: Locke and the Rise of Facultative Logic in the Eighteenth Century,” History and Philosophy of Logic 6, no. 1 (1985): 157–190CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

124 The number of usages is considerably lower than that identifiable in the seventeenth century. Hence, the vast majority of usages of animal rationale and its variants, identifiable when searching one relevant database, Eighteenth-Century Collections Online, are found in reproductions of Locke's critique, earlier logic textbooks, Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift's exchange over book 4 of Gulliver's Travels, satirical usage in plays, and a miscellany of unimportant works.

125 The key work on the extent of religious innatism remains Yolton, John, John Locke and the Way of Ideas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956)Google Scholar, though the picture needs updating.

126 On this topic, see, most enjoyably, Barnett, S. J., The Enlightenment and Religion: The Myths of Modernity (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003)Google Scholar.

127 Manuel, Frank E., The Eighteenth Century Confronts the Gods (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959), 60Google Scholar.

128 See O'Higgins, James, Anthony Collins: The Man and His Works (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1970), 51–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

129 Collins, Anthony, An Essay concerning the Use of Reason (London, 1707), 12Google Scholar.

130 On this, see Homyar Pahlan, “The Reception of John Locke's Religious and Political Thought, 1690–1710,” (PhD diss., University of Cambridge, 2009).