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²¹ The transition from plantation to small-scale farming after 1920 was swift. By 1925, 52 percent of the area under cane was farmed by CSR employees on its plantations. By 1939, 97 percent of the area under sugar was farmed by tenants. Lowndes, A. G., ed., South Pacific Enterprise: The Colonial Sugar Refining Limited (Sydney, 1956), 444Google Scholar, appendix 14.

²² CSR used its tenancy agreements, credit extension, unpaid tenant's labor in cane cutting and milling, and strict supervision of cultivation practices to ensure the continuation of high cane yields. Knapman, Fiji's Economic History, 20-21.

²³ Fisk, The Political Economy of Independent Fiji, 8, table 1.

²⁴ Judith Bennett, “Holland, Britain, and Germany in Melanesia,” in Tides of History, 42-45; Barrie Macdonald, “Britain,” in Tides of History, 173-79.

²⁵ See Keay, John, Last Post: The End of Empire in the Far East (London, 1997)Google Scholar.

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⁵⁷ An excellent account of mining on Bougainville is found in Oliver, Black Islanders, 118-59.

⁵⁸ See Oliver, Black Islanders, 124. Bougainville Copper Ltd. was incorporated in PNG as a private company on 2 June 1967. It was converted to a public company on 9 Aug. 1973. Its shareholders at that time were CRA (53.6 percent), the Government of PNG and the Investment Corporation of PNG (20 percent), the public (25.5 percent), and Panguna Development Foundation (0.9 percent). Alexander and Hattersley, Australian Mining, Minerals, and Oil, 162-63.

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⁶⁴ BHP used Dampier Mining, a wholly owned subsidiary, as its vehicle for participation. Dampier held a 37.5 percent interest in Ok Tedi Mining Ltd. (OTML). Its partners were the Mount Fubilan Development Company Pty. Ltd., a wholly owned subsidiary of Amoco Minerals Company (37.5 percent) and Kupferexplorationgesellschaft (25 percent), representing three German companies. The PNG government had the right to take a 20 percent stake, which they did exercise. Alexander and Hattersley, Australian Mining, Minerals, and Oil, 229.

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⁶⁶ Denoon, Getting under the Skin, 157-60.

⁶⁷ Greg Roberts, “Gold-diggers Leave Worries Behind,” Weekend Australian (1-2 Apr. 2006).

⁶⁸ “CRA clippings file,” J. B. Were Collection, 100:17, box 637, University of Melbourne Archive, Melbourne.

⁶⁹ Nonggor, “Foreign Investment,” 349.

⁷⁰ Oliver, Bougainville, 161-67. For a detailed discussion of traditional forms of land tenure amongst two of the five major ethnic groups on the island see Oliver, Black Islanders, 106-11,127-29.

⁷¹ Denoon, Getting under the Skin.

⁷² Eggertsson, Economic Behaviour and Institutions, 284-85.

⁷³ Oliver, Black Islanders, 126.

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⁷⁹ The average rainfall is eight meters per annum. General Electric Company (GEC), OK TEDI 24:00 (n.p., 1983), 33.

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⁸⁴ In 1993 BHP became the majority shareholder in OTML, increasing its share to 50 percent, and the PNG government lifted its stake from 20 percent to 30 percent. BHP Annual Report 1993.

⁸⁵ “BHP Billiton Withdraws from Ok Tedi Copper Mine and Establishes Development Fund for the Benefit of Papua New Guinea People.” http://www/bhpbilliton.com/bb/news Centre/newsReleaseDetail.jsp?id, accessed 20 Apr. 2006.

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⁹¹ A useful discussion of this literature can be found in Calori, Roland, Lubatkin, Michael, Very, Phillipe, and Veigra, John F., “Modeling the Origins of Nationally-bound Administrative Heritages: A Historical Institutional Analysis of French and British Firms,” Organization Science 8 (Nov.-Dec. 1997): 681–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lubatkin, Michael, Calori, Roland, Very, Phillipe, and Veiga, John F., “Managing Mergers across Borders: A Two-Nation Exploration of a Nationally Bound Administrative Heritage,” Organization Science 9 (Nov.-Dec. 1998): 670–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁰¹ McKenzie, P., “Aborigines in Industry—Groote Eylandt,” in Aborigines in the Economy: Employment, Wages, and Training, eds. Sharp, Ian G. and Tatz, Colin M. (Melbourne, 1966), 257Google Scholar.

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¹⁰⁴ In 2005, CSR's sugar business contributed only 40 percent of its revenues with the remainder coming from aluminum and building products. CSR Annual Report, 2005.

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¹⁰⁷ Denoon, A Trial Separation, 131-32.

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¹¹⁰ In 1988 BCL contributed 17 percent of government revenue and 45 percent of exports. Carruthers, “The Panguna Mine Impact (2),” 55-56.