¹ Alessandra Stanley, “A Booming Market for Art That Imitates Life after the Financial Crisis,” New York Times, 7 Feb. 2016.

² Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission (FCIC), The Financial Crisis Inquiry Report: Final Report of the National Commission on the Causes of the Financial and Economic Crisis in the United States (Washington, D.C., 2011)Google Scholar.

³ Ibid., xvii.

⁴ Rosenstone, Robert A., History on Film/Film on History, 2nd ed. (Harlow, U.K., 2012), 55Google Scholar. See also Munslow, Alan, “Film and History: Robert A. Rosenstone and History on Film/Film on History,” Rethinking History 11, no. 4 (2007): 565–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵ The concept of sensemaking is mostly attributable to Weick, Karl E., Sensemaking in Organizations (Thousand Oaks, Calif., 1995)Google Scholar. For recent discussions of sensemaking, see Maitlis, Sally and Christianson, Marlys, “Sensemaking in Organizations: Taking Stock and Moving Forward,” Academy of Management Annals 8, no. 1 (2014): 57–125CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Holt, Robin and Cornelissen, Joep, “Sensemaking Revisited,” Management Learning 45, no. 5 (2014): 525–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar. We use the sensemaking approach at the societal level and focus on how narratives create order and direction in, and ascribe meanings and causality to, events in situations of uncertainty. See Hansen, Per H., “Making Sense of Financial Crisis and Scandal: A Danish Bank Failure in the First Era of Finance Capitalism,” Enterprise & Society 13, no. 3 (2012): 672–706CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Seeger, Matthew W. and Sellnow, Timothy L., Narratives of Crisis: Telling Stories of Ruin and Renewal (Stanford, 2016)Google Scholar.

⁶ As in many other studies, the influence of business films on the audience's worldview and behavior is an implicit premise. See Corner, John, “Influence: The Contested Core of Media Research,” in Mass Media and Society, 3rd ed., ed. Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael (London, 2000), 376Google Scholar. See also Bell, Emma, Reading Management and Organization in Film (New York, 2008), 203CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For an analysis of different groups of viewers’ perceptions of films, see Shively, JoEllen, “Cowboys and Indians: Perceptions of Western Films among American Indians and Anglos,” American Sociological Review 57, no. 6 (1992): 725–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷ Steven Perlberg, “We Saw ‘Wolf of Wall Street’ with a Bunch of Wall Street Dudes and It Was Disturbing,” Business Insider, 19 Dec. 2013, http://www.businessinsider.com/banker-pros-cheer-wolf-of-wall-street-2013-12.

⁸ Francesco Guerrera, “The ‘Wall Street’ Effect,” Financial Times Weekend, 25–26 Sept. 2010. See also Geraldine Fabrikant, “Wall Street Reviews ‘Wall Street,’” New York Times, 10 Dec. 1987; Josh Sims, “Brace Yourself for Suspenders,” Financial Times, 14 Dec. 2007; and Colin Cameron, “Power, Sex and Suits,” Financial Times, 15 Dec. 2007.

⁹ McCracken, Grant, Culture and Consumption: New Approaches to the Symbolic Character of Consumer Goods and Activities (Bloomington, Ind., 1988), 74Google Scholar.

¹⁰ For a recent discussion of performativity, see Muniesa, Fabian, The Provoked Economy: Economic Reality and the Performative Turn (London, 2014)Google Scholar. In relation to business history, see Hansen, Per H., “Business History: A Cultural and Narrative Approach,” Business History Review 86, no. 4 (2012): 693–717CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Hansen, Per H., “From Finance Capitalism to Financialization: A Cultural and Narrative Perspective on 150 Years of Financial History,” Enterprise & Society 15, no. 4 (2014): 605–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Regarding epistemic communities, see Haas, Peter M., “Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination,” International Organization 46, no. 1 (1992): 1–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹ The idea that films and popular culture generally participate in shaping perceptions, identities, and practices is not particularly related to business and film, nor is it new. On business films, see, for example, Bell, Reading Management, 1, 23, 32–37; Czarniawska, Barbara and Rhodes, Carl, “Strong Plots: Popular Culture in Management Practice and Theory,” in Management Education and the Humanities, ed. Gagliardi, Pasquale and Czarniawska, Barbara (Cheltenham, U.K., 2006), 199Google Scholar; Levinson, Julie, The American Success Myth on Film (New York, 2012), 18CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Spector, Bert, “The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit in the Executive Suite: American Corporate Movies in the 1950s,” Journal of Management History 14, no. 1 (2008): 89Google Scholar; Shugan, Steven M., “Antibusiness Movies and Folk Marketing,” Marketing Science 25, no. 6 (2006): 681CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bugos, Glenn E., “Organizing Stories of Organizational Life: Four Films on American Business,” Studies in Cultures, Organizations and Societies 2, no. 1 (1996): 111–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 126; Ribstein, Larry E., “Wall Street and Vine: Hollywood's View of Business,” Managerial and Decision Economics 33, no. 4 (2012): 212CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Parker, Martin, Against Management: Organization in the Age of Managerialism (Oxford, 2002), 157Google Scholar. Within historical research, David Carr has argued in favor of continuities between narrative, everyday experience, and action; see Carr, Time, Narrative, and History (Bloomington, Ind., 1986), 16Google Scholar. See also Rosenstone, History on Film, 4; Rosenstone, Robert M., Visions of the Past: The Challenge of Film to Our Idea of History (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 22Google Scholar; and Trouillot, Jean-Rolph, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston, 1995), 21Google Scholar. For a business historian's view on film and history, see Miskell, Peter, “Historians and Film,” in Making History: An Introduction to the History and Practices of a Discipline, ed. Lambert, Peter and Schofield, Phillipp (London, 2004)Google Scholar. For a discussion of narratives and business history, see Hansen, “Business History.”

¹² Spector, Bert, “A Crack the Cold War Consensus: Billy Wilder's The Apartment,” Management & Organizational History 4, no. 2 (2009): 199CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bugos, “Organizing Stories,” 111–12; May, Larry, The Big Tomorrow: Hollywood and the Politics of the American Way (Chicago, 2000): 263–65Google Scholar.

¹³ On representations of management and organization in Hollywood films over time, see Bell, Reading Management. On how Hollywood movies represent business and the “American dream,” see Levinson, American Success Myth; and Boozer, Jack, Career Movies: American Business and the Success Mystique (Austin, Tex., 2002)Google Scholar. However, none of these three analyses addresses the more general category of business in society and how films make sense of business and uncertainty. Other scholars discuss Hollywood as a business in itself; see, for instance, Gomery, Douglas, “Film and Business History: The Development of an American Mass Entertainment Industry,” Journal of Contemporary History 19, no. 1 (1984): 89–103CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bakker, Gerben, “Stars and Stories: How Films Became Branded Products,” in An Economic History of Film, ed. Sedgwick, John and Pokorny, Michael (Abingdon, U.K., 2005)Google Scholar; Bakker, Gerben, “How Motion Pictures Industrialized Entertainment,” Journal of Economic History 72, no. 4 (2012): 1036–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Parker, Against Management, 135. On business films as teaching tools in business studies, see Bell, Reading Management; Werner, Andrea, “‘Margin Call’: Using Film to Explore Behavioural Aspects of the Financial Crisis,” Journal of Business Ethics 122, no. 4 (2014): 643–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Aupperle, Kenneth E. and Dunphy, Steven M., “Managerial Lessons for a New Millenium: Contributions from Chester Barnard and Frank Capra,” Management Decision 39, no. 2 (2001): 156–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Williams, Oliver F., ed., The Moral Imagination: How Literature and Films Can Stimulate Ethical Reflection in the Business World (Notre Dame, Ind., 1997)Google Scholar.

Among the few studies that present a general view of business representations in Hollywood film, some argue that Hollywood films are anticapitalist, and others, that they are procapitalist. For the former, see Ribstein, “Wall Street and Vine”; Ribstein, Larry E., ed., “Imagining Wall Street,” special issue, Virginia Law and Business Review 1, no. 2 (2006)Google Scholar; Edward W. Younkins, “Business through Literature and Film,” Le Québécois Libre, no. 308 (15 Feb. 2013), http://www.quebecoislibre.org/13/130215-7.html; and Shugan, “Antibusiness Movies.” For the latter, see Levinson, American Success Myth, 65–108; Oliete-Aldea, Elena, “Fear and Nostalgia in Times of Crisis: The Paradoxes of Globalization in Oliver Stone's Money Never Sleeps,” Culture Unbound 4, no. 2 (2010): 347–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Baum, Bruce, “Hollywood's Crisis of Capitalism 2011: Inside Job, The Company Men, and the Myth of Good Capitalism,” New Political Science 33, no. 4 (2011): 603–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Denzin, Norman K., “Reading ‘Wall Street’: Postmodern Contradictions in the American Social Structure,” in Theories of Modernity and Postmodernity, ed. Turner, Brian S. (London, 1990), 31–44Google Scholar.

¹⁴ See Hansen, “From Finance Capitalism”; and Parker, Against Management, 134–58.

¹⁵ Our selection of films resembles the “snowball sampling” used in Bell, Reading Management, 8–9. It is based on relevant literature, the Internet Movie Database (http://www.imdb.com/), and the American Film Institute's catalog of feature films (http://www.afi.com/members/catalog/). For a definition of Hollywood films, see Lewis, John, American Film: A History (New York, 2008), 92Google Scholar; and Belton, John, American Cinema/American Culture (New York, 2013), 24Google Scholar.

¹⁶ On narratives and the elements of events, actors, time, and location, see Bal, Mieke, Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narratives (Toronto, 2009)Google Scholar.

¹⁷ For more detailed analyses of some of the individual films, see Levinson, American Success Myth; Boozer, Career Movies; and Bell, Reading Management.

¹⁸ On the Hollywood system and organizing of filmmaking, see Bell, Reading Management, chap. 2; and May, The Big Tomorrow. Cinematography, music, choice of lead actors, and other issues also affected how the films represented business; see Bell, Reading Management, 13–64; and Levinson, American Success Myth, 1–20. However, for the purposes of this article, we argue that analysis of the films’ narratives is an appropriate analytical strategy.

¹⁹ Berle, Adolf and Means, Gardiner, The Modern Corporation and Private Property (New York, 1932)Google Scholar; Coase, Ronald, “The Nature of the Firm,” Economica 4, no. 16 (1937): 386–405CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a discussion of Berle and Means's point about the corporation as a social institution, see Davis, Gerald F., “The Twilight of the Berle and Means Corporation,” Seattle University Law Review 34, no. 4 (2011): 1121–38Google Scholar.

²⁰ U.S. Senate Committee on Banking and Currency, The Pecora Report: The 1934 Report on the Practices of Stock Exchanges from the “Pecora Commission” (Washington, D.C., 1934); Perino, Michael, The Hellhound of Wall Street: How Ferdinand Pecora's Investigation of the Great Crash Forever Changed American Finance (New York, 2010)Google Scholar.

²¹ See also May, The Big Tomorrow, 4. The Hucksters (1947) corresponds to some extent with the critical approach to big business, as the protagonist decides to leave the world of marketing.

²² Belton, American Cinema, 137.

²³ See also Levinson, American Success Myth, 70–75; and Bell, Reading Management, 19.

²⁴ See also Bugos, “Organizing Stories,” 112–15; and Levinson, American Success Myth, 42–43.

²⁵ About the latter, see Parker, Against Management, 139–40.

²⁶ Roper, Elmo, ”The Public Looks at Business,” Harvard Business Review 27, no. 2 (1949): 169, 170, 171Google Scholar.

²⁷ David, Donald K., “Business Responsibilities in an Uncertain World,” Harvard Business Review 27, no. 3 (1949): 1–8Google Scholar.

²⁸ Suspicion of big business, robber barons, Wall Street versus Main Street, and financial speculation all go back to the nineteenth century; see John, Richard, “Robber Barons Redux: Antimonopoly Reconsidered,” Enterprise & Society 13, no. 1 (2012): 1–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁹ Gregor Aisch and Alicia Parlapiano, “What Do You Think Is the Most Important Problem Facing This Country Today?” New York Times, 27 Feb. 2017.

³⁰ Roper, “Public Looks at Business,” 169.

³¹ For a discussion of the generation of 1950s executives and their values, see Cheffins, Brian R., “Corporate Governance since the Managerial Capitalism Era,” Business History Review 89, no. 4 (2015): 717–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³² Batia Wiesenfeld and Gino Cattani, “Business through Hollywood's Lens,” Harvard Business Review, Oct. 2010, 146–47.

³³ See Spector, “American Corporate Movies”; Spector, “Crack the Cold War Consensus”; and Noakes, John A., “Official Frames in Social Movement Theory: The FBI, HUAC, and the Communist Threat in Hollywood,” Sociological Quarterly 41, no. 4 (2000): 662–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁴ Chandler, Alfred D. Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass., 1990), 15Google Scholar. See also Chandler, Alfred D. Jr., Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass., 1962)Google Scholar and The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977).

³⁵ Drucker, Peter, The Concept of the Corporation (New York, 1946)Google Scholar; Drucker, Peter, The Practice of Management (New York, 1954)Google Scholar. The quote is from Drucker, “Trusting the Teacher in the Grey-Flannel Suit,” Economist, 17 Nov. 2005.

³⁶ Examples include A Woman's World (1954), Sabrina (1954), Executive Suite (1954), The Solid Gold Cadillac (1956), and Patterns (1956).

³⁷ Mills, C. Wright, White Collar: The American Middle Classes (New York, 1951), ixGoogle Scholar. See also Whyte, William H. Jr., The Organization Man (New York, 1956)Google Scholar; Spector, “American Corporate Movies,” 94–95; Levinson, American Success Myth, 75–92; and Bell, Reading Management, 95–96.

³⁸ Cash McCall (1960) refers to a similar conflict.

³⁹ Patterns (1956) and The Solid Gold Cadillac (1956) are other examples of how good management that is responsible to society is possible, especially with the new generation at the helm. See also Spector, “American Corporate Movies,” 96–99. For an alternative (more pessimistic) interpretation, see Levinson, American Success Myth, 87.

⁴⁰ The relationship between family and work, as well as the issue of women in the marriage, is also addressed in A Woman's World (1954).

⁴¹ Other business films of the 1950s addressed issues such as the introduction of new technology, in Desk Set (1957); labor unions versus management, in The Pajama Game (1957); and career versus family, in Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter? (1957).

⁴² See May, The Big Tomorrow, chap. 6.

⁴³ Aisch and Parlapiano, “Most Important Problem.”

⁴⁴ Martin Parker argues that The Apartment did not question “the overall legitimacy of the organization.” Parker, Against Management, 140–41. However, Bert Spector convincingly sees The Apartment as the beginning of a “significant ground shift” that took place in the 1960s. Spector, “American Corporate Movies,” 100.

⁴⁵ Spector, “Crack the Cold War Consensus.”

⁴⁶ For discussion of this process, see Cheffins, “Corporate Governance”; and Baker, George P. and Smith, George David, The New Financial Capitalists: Kohlberg Kravis Roberts and the Creation of Corporate Value (New York, 1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁷ Aisch and Parlapiano, “Most Important Problem.”

⁴⁸ Belton, American Cinema, 373. See also Lewis, American Film, 291.

⁴⁹ Galbraith, John Kenneth, The New Industrial State (Boston, 1967)Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ Jensen, Michael and Meckling, William H., “Theory of the Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs and Ownership Structure,” Journal of Financial Economics 3, no. 4 (1976): 305–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jensen, Michael, “Takeovers: Folklore and Science,” Harvard Business Review, Nov.–Dec. 1984, 109–21Google Scholar.

⁵¹ See, for instance, with telling titles, “The Organization Man, DEAD AT 76,” Journal of Business Strategy 18, no. 6 (1997): 19–23; and Bennett, Amanda, The Death of the Organization Man (New York, 1990)Google Scholar.

⁵² See Baker and Smith, New Financial Capitalists; Hansen, “From Finance Capitalism”; and Cheffins, “Corporate Governance.”

⁵³ Jensen and Meckling, “Theory of the Firm,” 310.

⁵⁴ Zingales, Luigi, “In Search of New Foundations,” Journal of Finance 55, no. 4 (2000): 1624CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁵ Ibid., 1642–43.

⁵⁶ Kwak, James, “Cultural Capture and the Financial Crisis,” in Preventing Regulatory Capture: Special Interest Influence and How to Limit It, ed. Carpenter, Daniel and Moss, David A. (Cambridge, Mass., 2013)Google Scholar.

⁵⁷ Quoted in Davis, Gerald F., “Politics and Financial Markets,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Sociology of Finance, ed. Cetina, Karin Knorr and Preda, Alex (Oxford, 2012), 44Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ Belton, American Cinema, 393–94. See also Parker, Against Management, 152–53; and Williamson, Judith, “‘Up Where You Belong’: Hollywood Images of Big Business in the 1980s,” in Enterprise and Heritage: Crosscurrents of National Culture, ed. Corner, John and Harvey, Sylvia (London, 1991)Google Scholar.

⁵⁹ See Trading Places (1983), Wall Street (1987), Working Girl (1988), Barbarians at the Gates (1993), Civil Action (1998), The Insider (1999), Rogue Trader (1999), Boiler Room (2000), Erin Brockovich (2000), Two Weeks Notice (2002), and In Good Company (2004).

⁶⁰ Bugos, “Organizing Stories,” 123. On the rise of finance and LBOs in the context of Wall Street, see Kelley, Beverly Merrill, Reelpolitik Ideologies in American Political Film (Lanham, Md., 2012), 43–74Google Scholar.

⁶¹ Francesco Guerrera, “How ‘Wall Street’ Changed Wall Street,” Financial Times, 24 Sept. 2010; and Kelley, Reelpolitik Ideologies, 65–70. For a critical academic analysis of Wall Street, see Denzin, “Reading ‘Wall Street.’”

⁶² The same point is made in Wall Street by Gekko (“I create nothing. I own”) and in Other People's Money (1991) by Garfield (“I don't make anything? I am making you money”).

⁶³ Examples include Baby Boom (1987), Tucker: A Man and His Dream (1988), Jerry Maguire (1996), Pirates of Silicon Valley (1999), The Aviator (2004), The Pursuit of Happyness (2006), There Will Be Blood (2007), and Cadillac Records (2008).

⁶⁴ McCraw, Thomas K., Prophet of Innovation: Joseph Schumpeter and Creative Destruction (Cambridge, Mass., 2007)Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Films such as The Secret of My Success (1987) and Thank You for Smoking (2005) also signal meaninglessness and cynicism in different ways.

⁶⁶ See, for instance, Baby Boom (1987), Pretty Woman (1990), You've Got Mail (1998), Two Weeks Notice (2002), The Pursuit of Happyness (2006), and A Good Year (2006).

⁶⁷ On the “new firm,” see Zingales, “New Foundations.”

⁶⁸ Donaldson, Thomas and Preston, Lee E., “The Stakeholder Theory of the Corporation: Concepts, Evidence, and Implications,” Academy of Management Review 20, no. 1 (1995): 65–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Freeman, R. Edward, Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach (Boston, 1984)Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ Examples include Baby Boom (1987), Working Girl (1988), Erin Brockovich (2000), and The Devil Wears Prada (2006). With regards to racial minorities, Eddie Murphy in Trading Places (1983), and Will Smith in The Pursuit of Happyness (2006) seem to be two exceptions to the rule.

⁷⁰ On representations of women in films, see Bell, Reading Management, 139–59.

⁷¹ Zingales, “New Foundations.”

⁷² The based-on-real-events film phenomenon accelerated with the financial crisis, but the trend was also clear in business films outside of finance, for instance, The Informant! (2009), The Social Network (2010), Casino Jack (2010), Jobs (2013), Joy (2015), Steve Jobs (2015), and The Founder (2016).

⁷³ For example, Up in the Air (2009), The Joneses (2009), The Informant! (2009), Arbitrage (2012), and The Wolf of Wall Street.

⁷⁴ The obvious reference is Thomas Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge, Mass., 2014).

⁷⁵ Seen also in Casino Jack (2010), Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps (2010), and Margin Call (2011).

⁷⁶ Examples include The Company Men (2010), Jobs (2013), Joy (2015), Steve Jobs (2015), and The Intern (2015).

⁷⁷ See Stout, Lynn, The Shareholder Value Myth: How Putting Shareholders First Harms Investors, Corporations, and the Public (San Francisco, 2012)Google Scholar; and Gautam Mukunda, “The Price of Wall Street's Power,” Harvard Business Review, June 2014, 70–78.

⁷⁸ Aisch and Parlapiano, “Most Important Problem.”