In 1985 the National Early Music Association published a report on Early Music in Schools. This painted a gloomy picture on most fronts but reminded us that the National Criteria in GCSE offered us a chance to use early music in new ways. Unfortunately, in general, we have taken little advantage of these opportunities, and this article examines some of the reasons for this.

The basic aim of this article is to argue that world music should be an integral part of any musical curriculum. An extensive example, drawn from Chinese traditional music, outlines potential benefits that the study of world music offers to the music teacher interested in it either for its own sake or as a means of developing pupils' skills at improvisations and composition. The featured example is a composition for erhu (Chinese two-stringed fiddle) by the folk musician Abing. Ideas are raised concerning musical context, analysis, melodic structure, tonality, metre, notation and ornamentation.

The following four articles are the outcome of a project initiated and nurtured by Richard Addison, Lecturer in Music in the School of Eduction at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, who, for many years, has been widely acclaimed for his innovative work in fostering children's creative musical abilities.

The writer looks at the meanings of the word ‘play’ and its properties, and draws attention to the common elements and the differences to be observed in the play of young people and adults respectively. He applies these observations to music, giving examples.

He then considers how classroom teachers have used some of the ‘play’ principles in their work, and introduces the idea of drawing instrumental teachers into similar patterns of action – to be fully developed in the other articles in this group. He summarises recent writings on the subject and his own practical contributions over the last few years.

This article proposes age and gender as a way of classifying music; it raises awareness of the importance of age–gender classifications of West African musics; and introduces examples of West African musics.

It is argued that the classifications could help in selecting musics for curricular use: they could be used as a framework to choose African musics for school curricula; while the musical examples may be of some use to teachers. Three curricular perspectives – musical, intercultural and multidisciplinary – are suggested, the first of which draws on African drumming procedures and creative work.

The paper describes a research project undertaken recently in four primary schools. The study involved an investigation of those factors which motivated the members of a study group of 48 pupils to start learning to play a musical instrument. The findings of the research identify the importance of interest factors and the encouragement of the teacher as determinants of pupils' decisions. There is some indication of differences in the criteria used by girls and boys, particularly with regard to the socialisation aspect of instrumental learning.

The author, troubled by doubts about the value for pupils’ general education of violin teaching, sets about finding out, by interview and open discussion, what the problems are, for teachers and pupils alike; and having analysed them, sets herself the task of trying solve some of them.

Encouraging pupils to compose music that will help them overcome their own technical difficulties is a fruitful start, and one that can lead to further developments of great promise for the future of music education. By evaluating the processes and outcomes of this creative work it is possible to throw light and understanding on learning and teaching processes in both violin playing and composition.

Musical criticism lies at the heart of music education. It is argued that there are five fundamental dimensions of musical criticism: control of sonorities; expressive characterisation; structural relationships; personal evaluation; historical and technical context. The first four of these – those directly concerned with response to a musical object or event – are the essential modes of criticism and these can be seen unfolding in the musical development of children. Following the publication in 1986 by Swanwick and Tillman of a musical development model, further research in Cyprus gives supportive results; showing strong agreement between judges on the use of critical criteria for assessing children's compositions and articulating the same sequential order of development. A random selection of children's compositions drawn from over 600 items collected in Cyprus is assessed by independent judges. There are correlations between assigned critical criteria and the age of the children. Thus the pattern of musical development can be seen to parallel a critical hierarchy. From these data we can also assume that, although the sequential order of development may be confirmed, the compositions of the UK children in our sample appear generally to be more advanced than those of their Cyprus peers. The quality and consistency of music education provision seems therefore to have a positive role in the development of critical powers. There are implications for music curriculum development, for assessment procedures and for further work on musical development, and on the relationship of composing to performing and of both to audience listening.

The unit for Research into Applied Musical Perception (RAMP) was set up in the Music Department of Huddersfield Polytechnic in 1985. Led by Professor George Pratt, then newly appointed as Head of Department, one of its primary tasks has been to explore the possibility of creating a course of aural training for undergraduates that would be radically different from those of conventional examining boards: a course that would be of more direct interest and use to musicians. An initial report on the research was published in BJME in July 1987 Vol. 4, No. 2 pp. (115–138), and a book, Aural Awareness: Principles and Practice was published in May 1990 by Open University Press. In this article Professor Pratt and his current Research Assistant, Simon Cargill, give a taste of the Huddersfield course as it now operates.

This article reports qualitative findings of an interview study in which 42 students (aged 10–18) from a specialist music school were encouraged to talk about various experiences in their lives which the individual children perceived as having been potentially significant influences on their progress in learning musical instruments. The parents of half the children were also interviewed. Observations concerning the following sources of influence are reported: the family background; sibling influences; listening to music. The insights of children and their parents, which complement and add depth to quantitative findings concerning the biographical precursors of musical excellence, help to provide a rich source of descriptive information about the circumstances in which children become competent young musicians.

This article is written to show that composition can become an integral part of an instrumental teacher's methodology. Current musical education in schools in England and Wales is trying to give children a broad understanding of what music can contribute to the lives of all - listeners and performers. The starting point for this is composition. If instrumental teachers can introduce children to this discipline along with the disciplines of instrumental technique and a love of performing, we can create true, well-balanced musicians.

Through this approach it is possible that we can develop an integrated music curriculum that joins together the expertise of the classroom music teacher and the instrumental teacher, with resulting benefits to children, who can then see that music is not divided between the creative classroom and the re-creative instrumental and performing worlds.

Primary music education programme development and implementation is founded on philosophical beliefs about the purpose of music education.

Primary classroom teachers who ultimately have responsibility for development and implementation of the music education programme formulate their philosophical beliefs about the purpose of music education based on a multitude of variables. Whilst their own past music experiences and education assume significance in the formation of a music education philosophy, the primary music curriculum documents provided by education authorities constitute an important source for teachers' current philosophical opinion about the purpose of music education.

Two philosophical arguments have thus far formed the basis of the purpose of music education in the history of the western world, namely, the intrinsic and extrinsic arguments. Primary music curriculum documents have also been based on one (or perhaps both), of these philosophical views about the purpose of music education.

In this article a discussion of the philosophical foundations of music education, with special reference to primary music education in Australia, is presented. Five primary music curriculum documents will be looked at, and commentary given about the current philosophical status of Australian primary music education and the implications for programme development and implementation.

The author's interest in the role of language in education began while he was a student at Goldsmiths' College. A number of transcripts from lessons are considered, and the dialogue between teacher and pupil is analysed with a view to finding clues about the nature of the musical learning which is taking place. It is the author's view that we should allow children ample opportunity and time to talk about the music they are involved with, since it is through verbal articulation of knowledge that the process of musical learning and creativity can be fostered.

This article reports further qualitative findings of an interview study involving 42 students (aged 10–18) attending a specialist music school, and parents of half of them. The students were encouraged to talk about events and experiences that influenced their progress in learning musical instruments. Observations by the children and their parents concerning perceptions of instrumental teachers, various aspects of practising activities, and attitudes towards performing. These insights complement previous quantitative and qualitative findings (Sloboda and Howe, 1991; Howe and Sloboda, 1991) and contribute descriptive knowledge of the precursors of musical accomplishments.

This article explores the development of musical language, as it takes place alongside the study of an instrument. More than simply the ability to read the printed score, musical literacy may be achieved creatively through improvisation and composition from the earliest lessons. The basis of this learning is through training the memory of the inner ear.

Relaxation clearly plays an important role in music practice and performance. However complete relaxation is neither possible nor musically appropriate. A certain degree of tension is always necessary to enable a suitable level of concentration and musical expression.

Concentration inevitably produces muscular reactions in different parts of the body. These cause problems when they occur in mutually opposing combinations. Common locations for such tension knots or blocks in music practice are the back of the neck, the wrists, and the hands (grasping reflex). Causes include overconcentration, emotional involvement in the music, fear of making mistakes in difficult passages, and insufficiently practised playing movements. The described effects are illustrated by reference to the practice and performance of a piece of piano music.

The article is based on two lectures given in 1987, one at an ESTA conference in Germany, and the other at an EPTA conference in Yugoslavia.

Music and language are often seen to be similar, and this has led to numerous music education methods based on language models. This paper describes a commonality between music and language at a semiotic level, compares their relevant syllabuses, and discusses a number of possible transfers between language teaching and music education.