Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-gq7q9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-18T15:19:42.309Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

What is a Psychological Unit?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 October 2014

Vicki L. Lee*
Affiliation:
Monash University
*
School of Graduate Studies, Faculty of Education, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3168, Australia
Get access

Abstract

This paper considers the question “What is a psychological unit?”. The ubiquity of units in daily life and in science is considered. The assumption that the individual human being or animal is the psychological unit is examined and rejected. The units represented by the data collected in operant laboratories are interpreted as a subset of the well-defined changes that individual human beings or animals can bring about. The departure of this interpretation from the traditional interpretation in terms of the behaviour of the organism is acknowledged. The paper concludes by noting the relation of the present interpretation of operant research to the problem of identifying psychological units.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 1995

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Barker, R.G. (1968). Ecological psychology: Concepts and methods for studying the environment of human behavior. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Baron, A., Perone, M., & Galizio, M. (1991). Analyzing the reinforcement process at the human level: Can application and behavioristic interpretation replace laboratory research? The Behavior Analyst, 14, 95105.Google Scholar
Carr, E.G. & Carlson, J.I. (1993). Reduction of severe behavior problems in the community using a multicomponent treatment approach. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 157172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Car, E.G., & Kemp, D.C. (1989). Functional equivalence of autistic leading and communicative pointing: Analysis and treatment. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 19, 561578.Google Scholar
Chein, I. (1972). The science of behaviour and the image of man. London: Tavistock.Google Scholar
Coulter, J. (1982). Theoretical problems of cognitive science. Inquiry, 25, 326Google Scholar
Dewey, J. (1930). Conduct and experience. In Murchison, C. (Ed.), Psychologies of the 1930s (pp. 408422). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.Google Scholar
Dube, W.V., McDonald, S.J., McIlvane, W.J., & Mackay, H.A. (1991). Constructed-response matching to sample and spelling instructions. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 305317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durand, V.M. (1993). Problem behavior as communication. Behaviour Change, 10, 197207.Google Scholar
Durand, V.M., & Carr, E.G. (1987). Social influences on “self-stimulatory” behavior: Analysis and treatment application. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 119132.Google Scholar
Eckman, P., & Friesen, W. (1978). Facial Action Coding Scheme (FACS): A technique for the measurement of facial action. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.Google Scholar
Feibleman, J.K. (1972). Scientific method: The hypothetico-experimental laboratory procedure of the physical sciences. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Franck, I. (1982). Psychology as a science: Resolving the idiographic-nomothetic controversy. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 12, 120.Google Scholar
Geertz, C. (1975). On the nature of anthropological understanding. American Scientist, 63, 4753.Google Scholar
Goldiamond, I. (1974). Toward a constructional approach to social problems. Behaviorism, 2, 184.Google Scholar
Goldiamond, I. (1975). Alternative sets as a framework for behavioral formulations and research. Behaviorism, 3, 4986.Google Scholar
Goldiamond, I. (1984). Training parent trainers and ethicists in nonlinear analysis of behavior. In Dangel, R.F. & Polster, R.A. (Eds.), Parent training: Foundations of research and practice (pp. 504546). New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Greeno, J.G. (1986). Advancing cognitive science through development of advanced instruction systems. Machine-Mediated Learning, 1, 327343.Google Scholar
Grichting, W.L. (1989). Psychology and sociology in Australia: The published evidence. Australian Psychologist, 24, 115126.Google Scholar
Hayes, S.C., & Brownstein, A.J. (1986). Mentalism, behavior-behavior relations, and a behavior-analytic view of the purposes of science. The Behavior Analyst, 9, 175190.Google Scholar
Holt, R.R. (1962). Individuality and generalization in the psychology of personality. Journal of Personality, 30, 317404.Google Scholar
John, I.D. (1988). The theory of the relationship between theory and practice in psychology as an impediment to its understanding. Australian Psychologist, 23, 289303.Google Scholar
Johnson, D. (1990). Psychology in Washington: Can psychological science survive national science policy in the 1990s? Psychological Science, 1, 147148.Google Scholar
Koch, S. (1993). “Psychology” or “the psychological studies”? American Psychologist, 48, 902904.Google Scholar
Lee, V.L. (1983). Behavior as a consistent of conduct. Behaviorism, 11, 199224.Google Scholar
Lee, V.L. (1985). Some comments about unity in psychology. The Psychological Record, 35, 287291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, V.L. (1988). Beyond behaviorism. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Lee, V.L. (1992). Transdermal interpretation of the subject matter of behavior analysis. American Psychologist, 47, 13371343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, V.L. (1993). Beyond the illusion of a mechanistic psychology. The Behavior Analyst, 16, 5558.Google Scholar
Lee, V.L. (in press). Beyond behavior and environment: The contingency. In Todd, J.T. & Morris, E.K. (Eds.), Modern perspectives on B.F. Skinner and radical behaviorism. Westport, CT: Greenwood.Google Scholar
Luchins, A.S., & Luchins, E.H. (1965). Logical foundations of mathematics for behavioral scientists. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
Moran, G., Fentress, J.C., & Golani, I. (1981). A description of relational patterns of movement during ritualized fighting in wolves. Animal Behavior, 29, 11461165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muenzinger, K.F. (1927). Physical and psychological reality. Psychological Review, 34, 220223.Google Scholar
Murray, H.A. (1951). Toward a classification of interactions. In Parsons, T. & Shils, E.A. (Eds.), Toward a general theory of action (pp. 434464). Cambridge, MI: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Norman, D.A. (1980a). Cognitive engineering and education. In Tuma, D.T. & Reif, F. (Eds.), Problem solving and education: Issues in teaching and research (pp. 97106). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Norman, D.A. (1980b). Twelve issues for cognitive science. Cognitive Science, 4, 132.Google Scholar
O'Donohue, W. (1989). The (Even) Bolder Model: The clinical psychologist as metaphysician–scientist–practitioner. American Psychologist, 44, 14601468.Google Scholar
Pronko, N.H. (1988). From AI to Zeitgeist: A philosophical guide for the skeptical psychologist. New York: Greenwood.Google Scholar
Purton, A.C. (1978). Ethological categories of behaviour and some consequences of their conflation. Animal Behavior, 26, 653670.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roback, A.A. (1923). Behaviorism and psychology. Cambridge, MA: University Bookstore.Google Scholar
Russo, D.C. (1990). A requiem for the passing of the three-term contingency. Behavior Therapy, 21, 153165.Google Scholar
Sampson, E.E. (1988). The debate on individualism: Indigenous psychologies of the individual and their role in personal and societal functioning. American Psychologist, 43, 1522.Google Scholar
Sampson, E.E. (1989). The challenge of social change for psychology: Globalization and psychology's theory of the person. American Psychologist, 44, 914921.Google Scholar
Schoenfeld, W.N. (1972). Problems of modern behavior theory. Conditional Reflex, 7, 3365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schoenfeld, W.N. (1976). The “response” in behavior theory. Pavlovian Journal of Biological Science, 11, 129149.Google Scholar
Scott, T.R. (1991). A personal view of the future of psychology departments. American Psychologist, 46, 975976.Google Scholar
Shimp, C.P. (1989). Contemporary behaviorism versus the old behavioral straw man in Gardner's The mind's new science: A history of the cognitive revolution. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 51, 163171.Google Scholar
Shimp, C.P. (1993). Observation and theory in behavior analysis. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 60, 481484.Google Scholar
Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. Acton, MS: Copley.Google Scholar
Skinner, B.F. (1974). About behaviourism. London: Jonathan Cape.Google Scholar
Skinner, B.F. (1978). Reflections on behaviorism and society. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Strongman, K.T. (1990). Emotion: The state of the various sciences. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 19, 3745.Google Scholar
Tolman, E.C. (1958). Behavior and psychological man. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Van Melsen, A.G. (1961). Science and technology (Duquesne Studies: Philosophical Series, 13). Pittsburg: Duquesne University Press.Google Scholar
Waddington, C.H. (1939). An introduction to modern genetics. London: Allen & Unwin.Google Scholar
Walker, J. (1979). Roundabout: The physics of rotation in the everyday world. New York: W.H. Freeman.Google Scholar
Walker, K.F. (1942). The nature and explanation of behavior. Psychological Review, 49, 569585.Google Scholar
Webster's II New Riverside University Dictionary. (1988). Boston, MA: Riverside.Google Scholar
Whishaw, I.Q., & Pellis, S.M. (1990). The structure of skilled forelimb reaching in the rat: A proximally driven movement with a single distal rotary component. Behavioural Brain Research, 41, 4959.Google Scholar
Whishaw, I.Q., Pellis, S.M., & Gorny, B.P. (1992). Skilled reaching in rats and humans: Evidence for parallel development or homology. Behavioural Brain Research, 47, 5970.Google Scholar
Ziman, J. (1976). The force of knowledge: The scientific dimension of society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ziman, J. (1978). Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Zinchenko, V.P. (1985). Vygotsky's ideas about units for the analysis of mind. In Wertsch, J.V. (Ed.), Culture, communication, and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives (pp. 94118). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar