1080 (sodium fluoroacetate)-baiting programmes are an important and often the only option for reducing the impact of invasive vertebrate pests on biodiversity and agricultural production in Australia and New Zealand. These programmes are generally recognised as being target specific, and environmentally and user safe. Nevertheless, although 1080 has few recognised long-term side-effects, its potential to disrupt endocrine systems has been recently raised, and there is some conjecture regarding the humaneness of 1080 for certain target species. However, the assessment of the humaneness of any vertebrate pesticide must be commensurate with its mode of action, metabolism, target specificity, and operational use. This has not always occurred with 1080, particularly regarding these aspects, and its overall effects. The actual risk faced by non-target species during baiting operations is not accurately reflected simply by their sensitivity to 1080. 1080 is not endocrine-disrupting or carcinogenic, and because of the lag phase before signs of poisoning occur, the time from ingestion to death is not a reliable indicator of its humaneness. Moreover, functional receptors and neurological pathways are required to experience pain. However, as 1080 impairs neurological function, mainly through effects on acetylcholine and glutamate, and as this impairment includes some pain receptors, it is difficult to interpret the behaviour of affected animals, or to assess their ability to experience discomfort and pain. This has implications for assessing the merits of including ameliorative agents in 1080 baits aimed at further improving welfare outcomes. We also suggest that the assessment of the humaneness of any vertebrate pesticide should follow the ethical pest control approach, and on this basis, believe that the use of 1080 to reduce the detrimental impacts of invasive vertebrates is ethical, particularly with respect to the expectations of the wider community.

Biopsy sampling is an effective technique for collecting cetacean skin and blubber samples for various biological studies. However, determining the impact of this research practice is important, as it may vary between sites, species and equipment used. We examined the short-term behavioural reactions of four small (160-278 cm in length) delphinid species (Stenella longirostris, S. attenuata, Tursiops aduncus and Peponocephala electra) to remote biopsy sampling in the vicinity of the island of Mayotte (12°50’S, 45°10’E, SW Indian Ocean). Two scales of behavioural reactions were considered: i) the behavioural reaction of the individual, and ii) the reaction of the focal group to which the targeted individual belonged. Three main categories of behavioural responses were defined on the basis of character and duration: low, moderate and strong. This study underlines that biopsy sampling induces moderate reactions in individuals. No inter-specific variations of responses, at the scale of the individual or focal group, were observed. In other words, smaller delphinids were not more reactive than larger ones. No effect of group size was observed on the strength of behavioural reactions. However, it was clear that biopsy success during sampling sessions was higher in species with large group size. Finally, in the spinner dolphin (S. longirostris), we investigated whether initial behavioural state affected the level of reaction. Resting and socialising groups showed a stronger response than milling and travelling groups. This study confirms the limited impact of remote biopsy sampling in small delphinids, especially in the spinner dolphin. However, as a precautionary approach, wherever possible, biopsy sampling of milling and travelling dolphins may be preferable.

The way in which animals are fed is an important aspect of their welfare. Not only does food provide the energy and nutrients vital for survival, but feeding is also associated with a number of other factors contributing to the well-being of animals. The feeding method can determine the animals’ abilities to fulfil basic behavioural needs, such as foraging. The aim of this paper is to review and discuss the dilemma of choosing between ad libitum feeding (AL) and dietary restriction (DR). AL can produce obese individuals with severe health problems, though it does appear to be compatible with welfare-friendly management systems. On the other hand, DR is often associated with improved physical health and longevity but can leave animals suffering from hunger, frustration or aggression. The species discussed are the laboratory rat, pigs and poultry all of which are omnivores sharing many characteristics in their eating habits. The welfare implications of different feeding methods depend upon the definition of welfare used. Based on a definition of welfare in terms of functioning, DR could be considered the best way to feed animals, because it results in improved physical health and longevity. If welfare is defined in terms of natural living, it is also a requirement for the animal to be able to engage in natural foraging behaviours. From the feelings-based approach, DR can be viewed as preferable only in circumstances when animals are anticipated to live so long that they would otherwise suffer from the negative long-term consequences of AL. It is argued that incentives are needed to make farmers spend resources to ensure that farm animals are allowed to have their foraging-related needs fulfilled. Feeding of laboratory animals creates special dilemmas when it is important either to under- or over-nourish the animals for experimental purposes, in such instances there is a need for Refinement.

Farming and laboratory industries face questions about whether to breed animals with altered capacities for pleasure and pain. This paper addresses this issue from different approaches to animal welfare based on experiences, fitness and naturalness. This can illuminate both the breeding-related issues and the different approaches themselves. These differences have practical implications for decisions about animal breeding. All three approaches will agree that pleasure that is adaptive in natural environments has positive value and that maladaptive pain has negative value. However, where animals’ environments will not be natural, experiences-based approaches may support breeding animals that experience more pleasure and less pain or insentient animals; whereas, in some cases, fitness-based and naturalness-based approaches might favour the breeding of animals that experience more pain and less pleasure.

At least one-third of the land on earth is used for agricultural production and conflicts with the interests of wildlife are inevitable. These conflicts are likely to escalate as the human population expands and as the scale and intensity of agricultural production increases. This paper argues that the same underlying causes frequently affect both wild animal welfare and conservation. Three key threats are discussed: disease transmission from domestic animals and the interventions used to manage wildlife reservoirs of zoonotic diseases; physical operations such as harvesting and the conversion of wildlife habitat to farmland; and the use of agrochemicals, particularly for pest control. While direct effects, such as accidental poisoning, tend to attract the most public attention, it is argued that indirect effects, such as the reduction in food supplies or the disruption of social structures, are likely to be of greater importance. The suffering of pest animals has traditionally been undervalued. There is a need for broader adoption of integrated, ecologically based strategies which minimise suffering and also minimise the numbers of animals involved by preventing population resurgence. New research is urgently required to compare the effects of alternative, economically viable farming strategies on both wildlife conservation and welfare, possibly within the framework of ecosystem services assessments.

Lameness is one of the greatest infringements of welfare in dairy cows. The objective of this study was to investigate associations between milk yield and foot lesions causing lameness in Chilean dairy cattle with the hypothesis that if we can demonstrate that lameness reduces yield, and so income, from lame dairy cows then we have both economic and welfare arguments for reducing lameness in dairy cattle. For one year, all lame cows from seven farms with Holstein Friesian cattle were treated by their herdsmen. Herdsmen were trained by the researcher and a colour atlas was utilised to assist in diagnosis of lesions. All abnormalities on the foot and the suspected cause of lameness were recorded, and cattle were treated. A two-level hierarchical model with repeated monthly test-day yields within cows was used to investigate the impact of double sole (DS), sole ulcer (SU), white line disease (WLD), digital dermatitis (DD) and all ‘other’ causes of lameness on milk yield before and after treatment. There were 1,635 cows with complete data. Cattle with a DS were higher yielding than cattle that were never lame with a reduction in yield from four months before treatment. Cattle lame with DD were higher yielding than non-lame cattle before and after treatment. For all causes of lameness, yield increased the month after treatment. We conclude that lesions causing lameness reduced the milk yield of dairy cows in these seven herds in Chile. We discuss the current evidence base for prevention of lameness in dairy cows and hypothesise that rapid treatment is a feasible current approach to improve cow welfare immediately and probably reduce milk lost; more evidence for effective prevention is required.

Organic livestock production has been increasing in the US, although it still merely constitutes a small fraction of total production. Its success will require detailed standards supported by scientific knowledge and consistent with organic farming principles. However, such standards, mandated under the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990, are yet to be fully developed. Regulations issued by the USDA's National Organic Program identify livestock health and welfare concerns that must be addressed in a farmer's organic farm plan (eg that there be appropriate housing). However, specifics regarding achievement of these goals are not provided in the form of clear standards for organic livestock production. This paper provides a new starting point to further the development of such standards. First, we outline a rationale based upon the legal context and state of the organic livestock industry detailing the reasons why development of these standards is timely. Second, using a review of existing organic and nonorganic national and international animal health and welfare standards, a search of available scientific research, and a consensus of key stakeholders, we identify areas in which organic standards should be readily adopted. We conclude by presenting one example of a plausible organic standard for each of four major US livestock categories: minimum space for feedlot beef cattle; prohibition of routine tail-docking in dairy cows; provision of perches for laying hens and prohibition of gestation crates for sows.

The poultry red mite (Dermanyssus gallinae) causes severe welfare concerns for laying hens arising from anaemia and disease transmission, and has been identified as an associated risk factor in cannibalistic feather pecking. Previous work suggests that essential oils may offer an alternative to synthetic acaricides to control D. gallinae. Such alternatives are needed due to the limitations of synthetic acaricides (eg availability, resistance, environmental concerns and product residues). The aim of the current study was to ensure that selected essential oils have no negative impact on either hen welfare or egg production. To achieve this aim, small groups of laying hens were confined in poultry huts for a period of eight weeks during which time the interior of the huts was sprayed at weekly intervals with one of four different treatments: i) Thyme essential oil at 5× the LC90 level (the concentration of oil previously found to kill 90% of D. gallinae under laboratory conditions) for D. gallinae in 500 ml of water, ii) Pennyroyal essential oil at 5× the LC90 level for D. gallinae in 500 ml of water, iii) Solvent-only (huts treated with 500 ml of water); and iv) Pseudo-spray where huts were not treated with any product, but subjected to sham-spraying. The results suggest that pennyroyal essential oil would not be suitable for further development as an acaricide for D. gallinae, since this treatment had to be terminated early in the study period as a result of concerns about the welfare of hens exposed to this oil. Conversely, there were few differences in feather condition, hen weight, feed intake, feeding efficiency, egg production or egg weight between thyme-treated huts and huts that were either pseudo-sprayed or sprayed with solvent-only (water). It is concluded that thyme essential oil is a promising candidate for further development as an acaricide for D. gallinae to help safeguard the welfare of laying hens in commercial poultry systems.

Milk yield per cow has more than doubled in the previous 40 years and many cows now produce more than 20,000 kg of milk per lactation. The increase in production should be viewed with concern because: i) the increase in milk yield has been accompanied by declining fertility, increasing leg and metabolic problems and declining longevity; ii) there are unfavourable genetic correlations between milk yield and fertility, mastitis and other production diseases, indicating that deterioration in fertility and health is largely a consequence of selection for increased milk yield; and iii) high disease incidence, reduced fertility, decreased longevity and modification of normal behaviour are indicative of substantial decline in cow welfare. Improving welfare is important as good welfare is regarded by the public as indicative of sustainable systems and good product quality and may also be economically beneficial. Expansion of the Profitable Lifetime Index used in the UK to include mastitis resistance and fertility could increase economic response to selection by up to 80%, compared with selection for milk production alone. In the last 10 years, several breeding organisations in Europe and North America followed the example of Nordic Countries and have included improving fertility and reducing incidence of mastitis in their breeding objectives, but these efforts are still timid. A multi-trait selection programme in which improving health, fertility and other welfare traits are included in the breeding objective, and appropriately weighted relative to production traits, should be adopted by all breeding organisations motivated in their goal of improving welfare.

Severe feather pecking, a potentially stereotypic behaviour in chickens (Gallus gallus), can be reduced by providing enrichment. However, there is little comparative information available on the effectiveness of different types of enrichment. Providing forages to birds is likely to decrease feather-pecking behaviour the most, as it is generally thought that feather pecking stems from re-directed foraging motivation. Yet, other types of enrichment, such as dustbaths and novel objects, have also been shown to reduce feather pecking. In order to develop a practical and effective enrichment, these different possibilities must be examined. Using a Latin Square Design, 14-week old birds were given each of four treatments: i) forages; ii) novel objects; iii) dustbaths; or iv) no enrichment. The amount of feather-pecking behaviour and the number of pecks to the enrichments were recorded. Results showed feather pecking to be highest when no enrichment was present and lowest when the forages were present, with the other two enrichments intermediate. This was despite the fact that the numbers of pecks birds gave to the forages and dustbaths were not significantly different, suggesting that they were similarly used. Thus, we suggest here that forage enrichments are most effective at alleviating feather pecking at least in the short term and attempts should be made to develop poultry housing that allows for natural foraging behaviour. Following this, providing any kind of enrichment will increase bird welfare and is therefore still beneficial.

Marine ecosystems are exposed to a wide variety of factors that may produce disturbances in their structure and functioning. The Gulf of California supports fisheries, tourism, intensive agriculture, mining, and more recently, shrimp aquaculture. Under such conditions, animals are forced to cope with several changes in their environment that can contribute to animal welfare problems. Serum cortisol level analysis may be a particularly useful means of assessing the physiological status of mammals potentially affected by increasing human activity in the Gulf of California, such as the California sea lion (Zalophus californianus californianus). In this study, we report for the first time the serum cortisol concentration of free-living, wild California sea lion pups. The analysis was performed in eleven rookeries along the Gulf of California. Two consecutive blood samples (S1 and S2) were obtained from 56 sea lion pups following a capture, handling and anaesthesia regime, and cortisol was measured by radioimmunoassay. Female pups showed higher serum cortisol than males in the first sample. In males, the second sample was significantly higher than the first. Cortisol levels in the two samples of both sexes combined differed between the Southern and Midriff-region rookeries. This information could be useful to assess welfare in wild populations of sea lions and to determine anthropogenic factors in the Gulf of California that may contribute to stress and reduced welfare.

Human activities deprive wild animals of their life requisites by destroying or impoverishing their surroundings, causing suffering of individuals. Yet, the notion that animal welfare applies to wildlife has escaped many animal welfarists and conservationists. A well-accepted and applied ethical foundation for animal conservation that considers animal welfare is lacking. We address this by examining how worldviews of conservationists and animal welfarists are related. The clear conceptual link is that individuals within anthropogenically disturbed populations often endure suffering caused by humans. Accordingly, our objectives are to provide an overview of wildlife conservation, integrate ethical aspects of wildlife conservation and animal welfare, and encourage a ‘wildlife welfare’ ethic among conservationists. We describe the relationship between contemporary socioeconomic and environmental conditions and the impoverished status of North American wildlife. We then describe the ecological plight of large mammalian carnivores in North America. Finally, as a case study, we focus on the tenuous lives of grey wolves (Canis lupus) living in the midst of human-dominated landscapes. We conclude that the suffering wildlife endures because of humans is a collective responsibility that presents a moral imperative for animal welfarists and conservationists alike. Habitat destruction and impoverishment deprives species of life requisites, causing trauma, prolonged suffering, and eventually death. We suggest that a shared doctrine of animal welfare principles is needed, such as a modified version of the internationally recognised Five Freedoms. In essence, this would be an ethical affirmation for conservationists and animal welfarists.

Farm assurance schemes can set standards to assure compliance with specific requirements relating to animal welfare. As such, standards can be set to address genetic-related welfare problems in farm animals, such as those associated with fast growth rates in meat chickens (broilers) (Gallus gallus domesticus). Based on discussions with broiler breeding companies, broiler producers and in line with published research, the RSPCA placed a maximum limit on the genetic growth rate potential of broilers that could be used within its own farm assurance scheme — Freedom Food. Despite the introduction of this requirement, the number of birds reared on the scheme increased from 25 million to 55 million per year over a three-year period, with all of these birds meeting the genetically slower growing requirement. In addition, the two largest global broiler breeding companies responded to this change in the market by each developing a genetically slower growing bird. This demonstrates that assurance schemes can have a pivotal role in tackling genetic welfare problems in farm animals, such as those associated with fast growth in broilers.

In order to determine the stress response to disbudding, physiological and behavioural response was investigated in disbudded kids and compared with a control group. Disbudded kids (n = 14), were disbudded by thermal cauterisation, and control kids (n = 15) received the same management without being disbudded. Cortisol was measured at -20, -10 and 0 min (pre-treatment), 0, 10, 20 and 30 min as well as 1, 2, 3 and 4 h from disbudding. Frequency and intensity of the behavioural response (kicks, vocalisations) were also recorded during disbudding. Cortisol was higher in disbudded than in control kids during the first 2 h after disbudding. The cortisol area under the curve was 235% higher in disbudded compared to control animals (828 [± 67.4] and 350 [± 65] nmol L−1, respectively). Disbudded kids showed high intensity behaviours in a greater number of animals (100%) and with a greater frequency than controls. These results indicate the presence of acute stress and a potentially painful experience. In conclusion, disbudding in goat kids induces an acute cortisol increase, which lasts for a duration of 2-3 h and a significant behavioural response. This clearly suggests the necessity of using anaesthesia/analgesia to avoid pain and stress.

Primates are bred in captivity for a number of purposes, from zoo-based captive breeding programmes for conservation to breeding for biomedical research. In each case, breeding animals that are fit for purpose, either as viable candidates for reintroduction or as valid research models, has presented challenges and resulted in steep learning curves. The breeding of animals for biomedical research has become increasingly focused on the production of animals that are less stressed by captive (specifically laboratory) environments. This is because elevated, particularly chronic, stress responses can result in altered physiological, neurological and behavioural states that have the potential to compromise the validity of scientific results. Selective breeding in captivity to, for example, maximise production, select for docile temperament or specific genotypes for biomedical research, is likely to be counter to natural selective pressures for evolutionary fitness. Given that many natural selective pressures active in the wild are absent in captivity, this paper reviews the selective breeding of primates (especially Old World monkeys) in captivity, its potential negative effects, and options that exist for ameliorating these negative effects.

Visitors to zoos are a source of potential stress to certain captive-housed animals. Much research has focused on Europe and America, whereas the effect of human audiences on the behaviour of captive animals in Chinese parks has so far not been investigated. Sika deer (Cervus nippon) housed in Zhu-Yu-Wan Park, Yangzhou City, Jiangsu Province, China, were studied to determine the effect of different visitor density levels on the animals’ activity. From June 21 to December 10, 2006, and again from February 21 to July 10, 2007, 21 subjects were observed for 10 h per week for a total of 44 weeks. Continuous focal animal sampling was used to quantify behaviours, and visitor density was recorded every minute. Friedman's tests were used to examine the effects of visitor density on the behaviour of sika deer. Results showed that high visitor density was significantly related to foraging, resting, watching and ‘non-visible’ behaviours. The findings demonstrate that high numbers of visitors have an effect on the welfare of sika deer.

The objective of this study was to evaluate conditions during transport and their effects on welfare and carcase bruising of beef cattle in Uruguay, a country with an extensive, pasture-based, production system. Twelve abattoirs were visited periodically during two years (2002-2003) and 448 trucks were inspected on arrival. The state of vehicle maintenance was deemed ‘unacceptable’ for the transport of animals in 16.5 (± 3.2)% of cases and most of the vehicles (99.1 [± 0.1]%) had a ‘guillotine-type’ door at the rear end. Both characteristics showed a significant association with the presence of carcase bruising. No overall significant difference was found with the year of vehicle manufacture (24.6 [± 0.2]% before 1990), the presence of rollers bars in 51.3 (± 0.1)% of the trucks on one or both sides of the doors, and the working experience of the men who transported the cattle (> 10 years). The average distance travelled with the animals loaded onto trucks was 240 (± 9) km and the mean journey length was 305 (± 7) min (5 h). A statistically significant effect of the distance travelled and the state of the roads on the occurrence of bruising was found. The use of devices to force animals to move, such as: electric prod (75%), sticks (3%), loud shouts (40%) and a combination of all of the above were positively correlated with bruising. After slaughter, carcase bruising was identified, quantified, and classified into three degrees of muscle injury. From 15,168 beef cattle observed, 60.0% (9,106) had at least one injury. Of the injured carcases, 33.1% (3,015) had one bruise, 25.1% (2,289) had two bruises, 16.2% (1,474) had three bruises and 25.6% (2,328) four or more bruises. Transporting animals in a humane fashion will reduce the amount of bruising on carcases, thereby increasing both the welfare of beef cattle and the profitability of the beef industry in Uruguay.

The relationships between pathology severity and pain severity are reviewed using the literature available for humans. The aim is to help veterinary radiologists, physicians and pathologists recognise the disorders in which severity of a lesion is likely to be related to the severity of pain or to incipient pain. Specific features or lesions within the following conditions showed a relationship with pain score, which was usually assessed with a visual analogue scale: inflammation; pancreatitis; ileitis; mucositis; fasciitis; synovitis; arthritis; lower back pain; disc herniation; sciatica; scoliosis; myalgia; cancer; arteriosclerosis; skin ulcers; mastalgia; skin and oral neuropathies; endometriosis; hepatopathy and chronic pulp diseases of the teeth. As experience with magnetic resonance imaging grows, there will be further opportunities to look for quantitative relationships in humans between pathology and pain severities. This information will be useful to veterinarians and other people working with animals in evaluating pain in animals in their care.