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Envisioning Empire from Inside the United States: Exile, Constitutional Monarchism, and Ethnic Conflict in Post-Independence Mexico
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 October 2023
Abstract
This article examines Tiburcio Campe's newspaper El Español, a brief yet concerted effort by exiled Spanish liberals in New Orleans that drew on the Cádiz constitutional experiment to demand the return of imperial rule in Mexico in the late 1820s. Exiled from Mexico as a consequence of the expulsion laws against Spaniards (españoles), Campe used his newspaper to criticize republican exclusionary policies and to militate against a possible expansion of abolitionism, ethnic conflict, and anti-white proposals in the Caribbean, promoting imperial constitutionalism as the only guarantor of the coexistence of Spaniards and Americanos and racial hierarchies in the Americas. Discussions regarding political and racial equality in Mexico and the United States, and the community's experience of exile in New Orleans, shaped these ideas, revealing how the banishment of Campe and other Spanish liberals renewed their advocacy of empire. Moreover, their exile in the United States facilitated their participation in the transatlantic public sphere and the circulation of their work, illustrating how the United States became a platform for envisioning and propagating imperial endeavors. Thus a study of El Español and Tiburcio Campe's actions allows us to comprehend the intricacies between exile and pro-monarchical discourses, as well as the nature of political and racial equality in the post-independence Americas.
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- Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Academy of American Franciscan History
Footnotes
I presented earlier versions of this article at the workshop Slavery, Trade, Law, and Empires in the Early Modern Atlantic (University of Texas at Austin, 2019) and the Congresso Internacional Independências do Brasil (São Paulo, 2022). I would like to thank the participants of these events. I would like to express my gratitude as well to Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra, the anonymous readers for The Americas, Lina del Castillo, Seth Garfield, Sarah Chambers, Jan C. Jansen, Thomas Mareite, Sophie Rose, Ana Joanna Vergara, Jannik Keindorf, Sibylle Fourcaud, Megan Maruschke, Alexander Chaparro Silva, Álvaro Caso Bello, Diego A. Godoy, and Thomas Elliott for their insightful comments and suggestions. I extend my gratitude also to Rafael Marquese and the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) (Project 2022/03781-2) for their support in São Paulo, and the Huntington Library and the Department of History of the University of Texas at Austin for granting me fellowships for archival research. This publication received support from a project that has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 849189). Special thanks to Nathalia Sandoval Rojas.
References
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13. For instance, Vilar states that Campe was a reactionary author, dismissing entirely the complexity and the influences of his political beliefs. See Vilar, La prensa en los orígenes de la enseñanza del español, 193–202; and Harold Sims, La reconquista de México: la historia de los atentados españoles, 1821–1830 (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1984).
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15. Alexander Chaparro Silva, Las armas y las letras: la reinvención de la legitimidad del orden monárquico en la Tierra Firme durante el momento absolutista, 1814–1819 (Master's thesis: Bogotá, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 2017).
16. Juan Luis Simal, Emigrados: España y el exilio internacional, 1814–1834 (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Políticos y Constitucionales, 2012). Maurizio Isabella shows how Italian liberal exiles built international networks to support their cause. See Maurizio Isabella, Risorgimento in Exile: Italian Émigrés and the Liberal International in the Post-Napoleonic Era (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2015).
17. Juan Luis Simal, “Crisis imperial y de identidad: liberales españoles en el exilio (1810–1833),” in Exils entre les deux mondes. Migrations et espaces politiques atlantiques au XIXe siècle, Delphine Diaz et al., eds. (Mordelles: Éditions Les Perséides, 2015), 83.
18. He co-edited the newspaper with Jacinto María López. The Inquisition ordered the collection of the newspaper's editions after the fall of the constitutional regime. Alberto Gil Novales, Prensa, guerra y revolución: los periódicos españoles durante la Guerra de la Independencia, 1808–1814 (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 2009), 106–107.
19. For the persecution of Spanish liberals after Ferdinand's restoration in 1814, see Simal, Emigrados, 74–90. Liberals were not the only ones running away from absolutists’ retaliations. The Afrancesados—supporters of Napoleón's brother Joseph, who ruled Spain between 1808 and 1813—also left the Peninsula after Ferdinand's return. Juan Antonio Llorente, a priest from Aragón, was one of them. He became an Inquisition official in the late 1780s and swore allegiance to Joseph as soon as he became king. After Ferdinand's return, Llorente traveled to Paris, where he joined the community of exiles in the city and established contacts with Spanish liberals. There, he wrote an influential history of the Inquisition in 1817. Later, Llorente devoted his work to reflections on the relationship between republicanism and Catholicism in Spanish America. His pieces were well known in the Americas, especially in Mexico. See Henry Kamen, The Disinherited: The Exiles Who Created Spanish Culture (London: Penguin Books, 2007), 180–184; Nancy Vogeley, “Llorente's Readers in the Americas,” Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 116:2 (October 2006): 375–393.
20. Simal, Emigrados, 235; Larry R. Jensen, Children of Colonial Despotism: Press, Politics, and Culture in Cuba, 1790–1840 (Tampa: University Press of Florida, 1988), 86–89.
21. Variedades, El Español, April 21, 1829, 2.
22. John Charles Chasteen, Americanos: Latin America's Struggle for Independence, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 74; Josep M. Fradera, Imperial Nation: Ruling Citizens and Subjects in the British, French, Spanish, and American Empires (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018), 69.
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25. On how the declaration of the Cádiz Constitution inspired the creation of counterrevolutionary calls for independence in Mexico, see Josep Escrig Rosa, “La utopía contrarrevolucionaria de una América sin revolución (México, 1820–1823),” Pasado y Memoria. Revista de Historia Contemporánea 23 (2021): 64–90; and Josep Escrig Rosa, “Contrarrevolución e independencias en Iberoamérica (1820–1823),” Ayer. Revista de Historia Contemporánea 126:2 (2022): 133–157.
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29. Romeo Flores Caballero, La Contrarrevolución en la independencia. Los españoles en la vida política, social y económica de México (1804–1838) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1973), 86.
30. Erika Pani, “Saving the Nation through Exclusion: Alien Laws in the Early Republic in the United States and Mexico,” The Americas 65:2 (2008): 225.
31. Rodríguez O., We are Now the True Spaniards, 332.
32. Rodríguez O., We are Now the True Spaniards, 333.
33. Al público, El Español, July 14, 1830, 2; Eugenio de Aviraneta e Ibargoyen, Mis memorias íntimas, 1825–1829 (Madrid: J. L Vallejo, 1906), 26.
34. Al público, El Español, July 14, 1830, 3.
35. Al público, El Español, May 12, 1830, 3.
36. See Flores Caballero, La Contrarrevolución en la independencia, 84–116.
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39. Erika Pani, “Saving the Nation through Exclusion,” 238. On how the arrival of refugees sparked discussions regarding citizenship and subjecthood in the British Atlantic, see Kit Candlin, “The Expansion of the Idea of the Refugee in the Early-Nineteenth-Century Atlantic World,” Slavery & Abolition 30:4 (2009): 521–544; and Jansen, “Aliens in a Revolutionary World.”
40. Will Fowler, Mexico in the Age of Proposals, 1821–1853 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998), 19–20.
41. Pani, “Saving the Nation through Exclusion,” 238.
42. Jesús Ruiz de Gordejuela Urquijo, La expulsión de los españoles de México y su destino incierto, 1821–1836 (Seville; Madrid; Diputación de Sevilla, Universidad de Sevilla/CSIC-Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 2006), 95.
43. Ruiz de Gordejuela Urquijo, La expulsión de los españoles, 117.
44. Al público, El Español, July 14, 1830, 2.
45. El Sol (Mexico City), January 11, 1820, 3.
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48. For a detailed account of the expedition, see Sims, The Expulsion, 139–159.
49. Andrew J. Torget, Seeds of Empire: Cotton, Slavery, and the Transformation of the Texas Borderlands, 1800–1850 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 144.
50. Torget, Seeds of Empire, 150.
51. Torget, Seeds of Empire, 149.
52. Frank Moya Pons, La dominación haitiana, 1822–1844 (Santiago, Dominican Republic: Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, 1978), 84.
53. Josefina Zoraida Vázquez, México, Gran Bretaña y otros países (1821–1846) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 2010), 84.
54. Nicolás Kanellos and Helvetia Martell, Hispanic Periodicals in the United States, Origins to 1960: A Brief History and Comprehensive Bibliography (Houston: Arte Público Press, 2000), 6.
55. On how Spanish American diplomats promoted the recognition of the new republics and the immigration of white Americans to Spanish America, see Ernesto Bassi, “The ‘Franklins of Colombia’: Immigration Schemes and Hemispheric Solidarity in the Making of a Civilised Colombian Nation,” Journal of Latin American Studies 50:3 (2018): 673-701.
56. Caitlin A. Fitz, “The Hemispheric Dimensions of Early U.S. Nationalism: The War of 1812, Its Aftermath, and Spanish American Independence,” Journal of American History 102:2 (2015): 356–379.
57. Rafe Blaufarb, “The Western Question: The Geopolitics of Latin American Independence,” American Historical Review 112:3 (2007): 750–752.
58. Fitz, Our Sister Republics, 194–239; Jay Sexton, “An American System: The North American Union and Latin America in the 1820s,” in Connections after Colonialism: Europe and Latin America in the 1820s, Matthew Brown and Gabriel Paquette, eds. (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2013), 151–155.
59. Cécile Vidal, Caribbean New Orleans: Empire, Race, and the Making of a Slave Society (Williamsburg; Chapel Hill: Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture/University of North Carolina Press, 2019), 5.
60. Vidal, Caribbean New Orleans, 5.
61. Rashauna Johnson, Slavery's Metropolis: Unfree Labor in New Orleans During the Age of Revolutions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 1–2.
62. R. Johnson, Slavery's Metropolis, 16; Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2013), 2.
63. Nathalie Dessens, From Saint-Domingue to New Orleans: Migration and Influences (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2007), 1.
64. Paul F. Lachance, “The 1809 Immigration of Saint-Domingue Refugees to New Orleans: Reception, Integration and Impact,” Louisiana History: Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association 29:2 (1988): 109–141.
65. Ashli White, Encountering Revolution, 188–202.
66. White, Encountering Revolution, 182–185.
67. Rebecca J. Scott, “‘She . . . Refuses To Deliver Up Herself as the Slave of Your Petitioner’: Émigrés, Enslavement, and the 1808 Louisiana Digest of the Civil Laws,” Tulane European and Civil Law Forum 24 (2009): 19. See also Rebecca J. Scott, “Paper Thin: Freedom and Re-enslavement in the Diaspora of the Haitian Revolution,” Law and History Review 29:4 (2011): 1061–1087; and Rebecca J. Scott and Jean M. Hébrard, Freedom Papers: An Atlantic Odyssey in the Age of Emancipation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012), 65–82.
68. Dessens, From Saint-Domingue to New Orleans, 87.
69. Silva Gruesz, Ambassadors of Culture, 110.
70. Raymond R MacCurdy, A History and Bibliography of Spanish-Language Newspapers and Magazines in Louisiana, 1808–1949 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1951), 11.
71. Silva Gruesz, Ambassadors of Culture, 111.
72. El Sol (Mexico City), August 22,1830, 595.
73. El Sol (Mexico City), 386, July 21, 1830, 1543.
74. Asistencia de los Secretarios del Despacho de Estado, de Hacienda, de Guerra y de Marina para tratar la exposición del Capitán General de Cuba, Palacio Real, June 30, 1828, Archivo General de Indias [hereafter AGI], Estado, 96, No. 129 (9), fol. 7r.
75. Al público, El Español, May 25, 1830, 3.
76. Al público, El Español, March 28, 1830, 4.
77. Francisco Dionisio Vives to Secretaría de Estado, Havana, January 22, 1830, AGI, Estado, 94, No. 96, fol. 1v.
78. Cartas a Luis. Primera. Impresa en N. Orleans, Marzo 12 de 1829, AGI, Estado, 96, No. 138a, fol. 1r.
79. Francisco Tacón to Manuel González Salmón, Philadelphia, April 16, 1829, AGI, Estado, 96, No. 138, fol. 1v.
80. Francisco Tacón to Manuel González Salmón, Philadelphia, April 26, 1829, AGI, Estado, 96, No. 141, fol. 1r.
81. Despedida, El Español, August 26, 1829, 4.
82. Francisco Dionisio Vives to Conde de Villanueva, Havana, January 9, 1830, Archivo Nacional de Cuba [hereafter ANC], Asuntos Políticos, 120, exp. 116.
83. Prospecto, El Español, April 6, 1829, 1.
84. Prospecto, El Español, April 6, 1829, 1.
85. The editors never published the subscribers’ names, fearing possible attacks from the Mexican government. Prospecto, El Español, December 11, 1829, 1.
86. Francisco Tacón to Manuel González Salmón, Philadelphia, August 28, 1830, AGI, Estado, 94, No. 79, fol. 1r.
87. Secretaría de Estado a Redacción de Gazeta, Madrid, March 25, 1830, AGI, Estado, 94, No. 32, fol. 1r.
88. Secretaría de Estado a Manuel González Salmón, Madrid, September 18, 1829, AGI, Estado, 96, 67, fol. 2v.
89. Secretaría de Estado a Manuel González Salmón, Madrid, September 13, 1829, AGI, Estado, 96, 47, fol. 2v. Underlined in the original.
90. Tomás Quintero to Secretario del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, London, November 3, 1829; Tomás Jesús Quintero and Daniel Gutiérrez Ardila, Tomás Quintero/Thomas Farmer: informes del espía de la República de Colombia en la corte de Fernando VII (1825–1830) (Bogotá: Universidad Externado de Colombia, 2012), 400.
91. Francisco Tacón a Manuel González Salmón, Philadelphia, May 29, 1829, AGI, Estado, 96, 150, fol. 1r.
92. L'Abeille (New Orleans) April 22, 1829, 2; L'Abeille (New Orleans) April 28, 1829, 2.
93. La Abeja (New Orleans), May 20, 1830, 3.
94. La Abeja (New Orleans), January 20, 1830, 3.
95. Francisco Dionisio Vives to Conde de Villanueva, Havana, December 23, 1829, ANC, Asuntos Políticos, 116, exp. 50.
96. El Sol (Mexico City), June 15, 1830, 1398.
97. El Sol (Mexico City), June 2, 1830, 1345.
98. El Sol (Mexico City), March 8, 1830, 1004.
99. Article 5, Constitución de la Monarquía Española, Promulgada en Cádiz a 19 de Marzo de 1812, 4.
100. Antonio Feros, Speaking of Spain: The Evolution of Race and Nation in the Hispanic World (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2017), 234.
101. I took this reading of Blanco White from Roberto Breña, “José María Blanco White y la Independencia de América: ¿Una postura pro-americana?,” Historia Constitucional 3 (2002): 1-17.
102. Despedida, El Español, August 4, 1830, 1.
103. Al público, El Español, May 25, 1830, 4. Italics in the original.
104. Al público, El Español, May 25, 1830, 2.
105. Prospecto, El Español, December 11, 1829, 1.
106. Chaparro Silva has explored this strategy in Tierra Firme's royalist thought. See Chaparro Silva, “‘Todas las cosas tienen su tiempo’. Temporalidad e historia durante la restauración monárquica en la Tierra Firme (1814–1819).”
107. Variedades, El Español, May 11, 1829, 1.
108. Variedades, El Español, (New Orleans), May 11, 1829, 1.
109. Variedades, El Español, May 1, 1829, 2.
110. De José Roca Santi-Pietri, El Español, June 26, 1829, 3.
111. Ley de espulsión, El Español, April 16, 1829, 1.
112. Ley de espulsión, El Español, April 16, 1829, 1.
113. Alcance extraordinario al número 2 de El Español (New Orleans), April 11, 1829, 1.
114. Representación de las esposas e hijas de los peninsulares espulsos al presidente de los Estados Unidos Mejicanos, El Español, January 12, 1830, 2. Italics in the original.
115. Esposición que varias señoras veracruzanas dirigieron el primero de abril al escelentísimo señor gobernador del estado, general Santana, El Español, June 1, 1829, 1.
116. Esposición que varias señoras veracruzanas dirigieron el primero de abril al escelentísimo señor gobernador del estado, general Santana, El Español, June 1, 1829, 1.
117. Al público, El Español, July 1, 1829, 3.
118. Remitido, El Español, August 6, 1829, 2.
119. A los españoles, El Español, August 21, 1829, 1.
120. A los españoles, El Español, August 21, 1829, 1.
121. Remitido, El Español, August 26, 1829, 4. Italics in the original.
122. Remitido, El Español, August 26, 1829, 4.
123. Variedades, El Español, April 21, 1829, 1.
124. Variedades, El Español, March 20, 1830, 1.
125. Variedades, El Español, August 26, 1829, 1.
126. Ibar published extensively in Mexico. His work criticizing Masonic lodges’ factionalism was reprinted during the following years. See Rafael Rojas, “La frustración del primer republicanismo mexicano,” in El republicanismo en Hispanoamérica: ensayos de historia intelectual y política, José Antonio Aguilar and Rafael Rojas, eds. (Mexico City: Centro de Investigación y Docencia/Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2002), 419.
127. Variedades, El Español, August 26, 1829, 1.
128. Variedades, El Español, August 26, 1829, 1.
129. Variedades, El Español, April 11, 1829, 2.
130. Manifiesto que el gobierno de Nueva España, constituido por su legítimo Soberano de Señor Don Fernando VII y representado por el Virrey D. Félix María Calleja, hace a todas las Naciones contra las falsedades, calumnias, y errores que han producido los rebeldes de Mexico en un papel intitulado: El Supremo Congreso Mexicano a todas las Naciones, escrito en Puruarán a 28 de junio de 1815.
131. Manifiesto que el gobierno de Nueva España..., El Español, February 12, 1830, 3.
132. Manifiesto que el gobierno de Nueva España..., El Español, February 12, 1830, 3.
133. Al público, El Español, July 14, 1830, 3.
134. Remitido, El Español, February 16, 1830, 4.
135. Noticias, El Español, December 28, 1829, 3.
136. Remitido, El Español, February 16, 1830, 4.
137. Méjico, 31 de enero de 1830, El Español, April 3, 1830, 2.
138. Variedades, El Español, April 9, 1830, 2.
139. Remitidos, El Español, January 21, 1830, 4. Italics in the original.
140. Remitidos, El Español, January 21, 1830, 4. Italics in the original.
141. Remitidos, El Español, January 21, 1830, 4. Italics in the original.
142. Remitidos, El Español, January 21, 1830, 4. Italics in the original.
143. Sabau, Ana, Riot and Rebellion in Mexico: The Making of a Race War Paradigm (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2022), 132–134Google Scholar.
144. República Mejicana, El Español, February 28, 1830, 2. Italics in the original.
145. Conspiración, El Español, March 19, 1830, 4. Organized by the Águila Negra, a masonic lodge with branches in México and Cuba, this conspiracy sought to overthrow the Spanish government on the island. Spanish representatives in the United States discovered it and notified Cuban authorities about the masonic lodge's plans. See Vilaboy, Sergio Guerra, “México y Cuba: primeros esfuerzos por la independencia cubana, 1820-1830,” Sotavento 2:4 (1998), 53–54Google Scholar.
146. República Mejicana, El Español, June 25, 1830, 4.
147. For how revolutionaries crafted discourses of “racial harmony” to consolidate republican regimes in Spanish America, especially in Colombia, see Marixa Lasso, Myths of Harmony: Race and Republicanism During the Age of Revolution, Colombia, 1795–1831 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2007); and Lasso, Marixa, “Race War and Nation in Caribbean Gran Colombia, Cartagena, 1810–1832,” American Historical Review 111:2 (2006): 336–361CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
148. Milicia, El Español, May 11, 1829, 3.
149. Milicia, El Español, May 11, 1829, 3.
150. Nueva Orleans, El Español, May 14, 1830, 4. Italics in the original.
151. Otro, El Español May 16, 1830, 4.
152. Nueva Orleans, El Español May 14, 1830, 1.
153. Despedida, El Español, August 4, 1830, 2.
154. Miguel Tacón to Secretario de Estado y del Despacho de Ultramar, Havana, April 30, 1835, Archivo Histórico Nacional (Madrid), Ultramar, 4603, pieza 23.