I would like to thank Steve Butterman, Tracy Devine-Guzmán, and George Yúdice, who commented on an earlier version of this article that I presented at the University of Miami in 2011. I am grateful to Rebecca Atencio, Sophia Beai, James Green, Victoria Langland, Jeffrey Lesser, and anonymous readers oí The Americas who offered valuable critiques and suggestions along the way.

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14. Ken Goffman and Dan Joy have argued that countercultural movements are transhistorical, near-universal phenomena, providing examples that include Abraham, Socrates, Taoists, Zen Buddhists, Sufi mystics, Provençal poets, Enlightenment rationalists, American Transcendentalists, avant-garde artists, beatniks, hippies, punks, and cyberhackers. For them, all countercultures share a set of defining principles: the primacy of individuality over social conventions; the rejection of authoritarianism in all forms; and the embrace of individual and social transformation. See Counterculture Through the Ages: From Abraham to Acid House (New York: Villard Books, 2004), p. 29.

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17. A Spanish-language translation of this book, El nacimiento de una contracultura, was first published by Editorial Kairós of Barcelona in 1970. Editora Vozes launched a series devoted to the counterculture that also featured a translation of Norman Brown’s Life Against Death and Bresser’s, L.C. Tecnobtirocracia e con-testaçâo (1972), an analysis of alienation produced by the rise of technocratic society.Google Scholar

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25. Countercultural movements emerged in societies led by progressive regimes as well as conservative ones. Poder Joven, a countercultural movement formed in Chile in 1969, espoused personal liberation as a prelude to collective liberation. Led by a charismatic leader with the pseudonym “Silo,” this movement, also known as “Siloismo” was at odds with the revolutionary Popular Unity government of Salvador Allende. See Barr-Melej, Patrick “Siloísmo and the Self in Allende’s Chile: Youth, ‘Total Revolution,’ and the Roots of the Humanist Movement,” Hispanic American Historical Review 86:4 (November 2006), pp. 748–749.CrossRefGoogle Scholar The revolutionary Cuban government took a dim view of rock music, associating it with “alternative dress and lifestyles” that were incompatible with socialism. See Moore, Robin Music and Revolution: Cultural Change in Socialist Cuba (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), p. 150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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31. Ibid., p. 18.

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42. There were established routes for these kinds of adventures, which attracted both middle- and working-class youth, primarily from the more affluent southern and central regions of the country. The trem da morte (train of death) was a slow-moving train departing from Corumbá, in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, headed to Santa Cruz de la Sierra in Bolivia. From there, passengers could continue on to the Andean highlands to visit destinations such as Machu Picchu. Another popular trip for alternative travelers was to descend the Sâo Francisco River from its headwaters in northern Minas Gérais, through backland towns such as Pira-pora, Remanso, and Paulo Afonso to the coastal towns separating Sergipe and Alagoas.

43. Arquivo Estadual do Rio de Janeiro, DOPS Informe 186:11–8, “Atividades Suspeitas de ‘Hipies’ Contato com Elemento Russo,” signed by Alladyr Ramos Braga (March 15, 1973).

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48. Castro, Ruy Eia é carioca: uma enciclopedia de Ipanema (Sao Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1999), p. 298.Google Scholar The iconic American musical Hair, to which Castro refers, was translated and staged in Brazil for the first time at the Teatro Aquarius of Sào Paulo in October 1969 under the direction of Ademar Guerra after a long negotiation with the censors. The Brazilian version of Hair created by Renata Palottini ran for eight months and was seen by 170,000 spectators. The rock opera launched the career of Sonia Braga, who went on to international fame as a film star in the 1970s and 1980s. See Feijó, Martin Cezar “Hair 40 anos depois— uma viagem pessoal,” Trama Interdisciplinar 2:1 (2011);Google Scholar Días, Lucy Anos 70, p. 89.Google Scholar

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56. Ibid., p. 82.

57. José Luiz Braga has divided the history of O Pasquim into distinct periods. The Dionsysian phase, through issue 80 (January 1971), was followed by what he calls the “long passage” in which the journal strug-gled with censorship, financial threats, and the need to institutionalize after the initial period of euphoria. With the end of censorship, the paper entered its “liberal” phase as it participated with greater force and frequency in efforts to restore democracy and free expression. In the late 1970s, O Pasquim became a “jornal dos retornados,” focusing attention on the political exiles who returned following the suspension of AI–5 in December 1978 and the establishment of a general amnesty in August 1979. Braga, , O Pasquim e os anos 70, pp. 15–17.Google Scholar

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63. Maciel has claimed that he received “an avalanche of letters, mostly from young people, that were sincere, gushing, and guileless.” See Maciel, Negocio seguinte, p. 75.Google Scholar

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65. Versions of Rolling Stone magazine were published elsewhere in Latin America, most notably in Mexico under the Spanish title Piedra Rodante, which was edited by Manuel Aceves in 1971 and 1972.

66. The Brazilian edition of Rolling Stone was relaunched as a full-color glossy magazine similar to the U.S. version in October 2006. The first issue featured a story about the earlier version from the early 1970s. See Rocha, Antonio do Amarai “A primeira versào,” Rolling Stone (October 2006). http://rollingstone.com.br/edicao/l/a-prinieira-versao, accessed January 10, 2013.Google Scholar

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71. The Ôi advertisement appeared in O Pasquim throughout 1970. For one example, see O Pasquim 48, May 21–28, 1970.

72. “Gal,” O Pasquim 25, 1969.

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75. O Pasquim 73, November 11–l17, 1969, p. 20.

76. Between 1971 and 1976, the number of university students in Brazil nearly doubled, going from 561,397 to 1,044,472 matriculations. See Durham, Eunice Ribeiro “O sistema federal de ensino superior: problemas e alternativas,” Revista Brasileira de Ciencias Saciáis 23 (Oct. 1993), p. 8.Google Scholar

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78. O Pasquim 22, November 20–26, 1969, p. 19.

79. A Tarde, February 29, 1972, p. 14.

80. O Pasquim 139, February 29-March 3, 1972, p. 16.

81. Rolling Stone 22, September 26, 1972, 16.

82. Veja, October 6, 1971, p. 51.

83. Pinto Coelho, Claudio Novaes “A contracultura: o outro lado da modernizaçâo autoritària,” in Anos 70: trajetórias, pp. 39–41.Google Scholar

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86. Gabeira, Fernando O que é isso, companheiro? (Rio de Janeiro: Codecri, 1979).Google Scholar The 1997 film, directed by Bruno Barreto, was translated into English as Four Days in September.

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