Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-x4r87 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T05:15:03.580Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Occasional Hunts or Mass Kills? Investigating the Origins of Archaeological Pronghorn Bonebeds in Southwest Wyoming

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Jack N. Fenner
Jack N. Fenner*
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology and Natural History, The Australian National University, Canberra ACT 2600, Australia (jack.fenner@anu.edu.au)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

It is often unclear whether an archaeological animal bonebed was formed by a mass kill of individuals from a single prey population or through the accumulation of a number of separate kills which occurred over a long time period or at multiple locations. The isotope ratio variation within animals from an archaeological bonebed can be used to investigate this question by comparing the isotope ratio variation within an archaeological assemblage to the variation within modern populations. If the archaeological variation exceeds that expected within a single population, then an accumulation is indicated. Otherwise, a single mass kill or a series of kills from a single population over a fairly short time period is more likely. This technique is demonstrated using carbon, oxygen, and strontium isotope ratios to characterize the amount of variation within pronghorn tooth enamel from six archaeological sites in southwestern Wyoming. The results indicate that the Austin Wash and Trappers Point sites are the result of an accumulation of pronghorn from multiple populations, while the Firehole Basin, Gailiun, and Boars Tusk sites do not show evidence of accumulation and therefore may be the result of mass kills. The Eden-Farson site formation characteristics are currently indeterminate.

Résumé

Résumé

A menudo es difícil determinar si un depósito arqueológico de restos óseos de animal se formó a través de la muerte en masa de individuos de una única población de presas, o a través de la acumulación de un número de muertes por separado que tuvieron lugar durante un periodo de tiempo prolongado o en múltiples lugares. Es posible utilizar la variación de relaciones isotópicas en los animales de un depósito arqueológico de huesos para investigar dicha cuestión. La variación de relaciones isotópicas de un contexto arqueológico es comparada con la variación en de población moderna y, si la variación arqueológica supera aquella que se espera dentro de una única población, se indica una acumulación. De otra manera, es más probable una única muerte en masa o una serie de muertes de una única población a lo largo de un periodo de tiempo relativamente corto. Dicha técnica queda demostrada mediante el uso de relaciones isotópicas de carbono, oxígeno y estroncio para caracterizar la magnitud de la variación en el esmalte de dientes de antílopes americanos proveniente de seis yacimientos arqueológicos del sudoeste de Wyoming. Los resultados indican que los yacimientos de Austin Wash y Trappers Point son el resultado de una acumulación de antilocapras americanas de diversas poblaciones, mientras que los yacimientos de Firehole Basin, Gailiun y Boars Tusk no presentan evidencia de acumulación y por lo tanto pueden ser el resultado de muertes en masa únicas. Las características de la formación del yacimiento de Eden-Farson aún no han sido determinadas.

Type
Reports
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 74 , Issue 2 , April 2009 , pp. 323 - 350
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Arkush, Brooke S. 1986 Aboriginal Exploitation of Pronghorn in the Great Basin. Journal of Ethnobiology 6:239–255.Google Scholar
Bartlein, Patrick J., Edwards, Mary E., Shafer, Sarah L., and Barker, Edward D. Jr. 1995 Calibration of Radiocarbon Ages and the Interpretation of Paleoenvironmental Records. Quartenary Research 44:417–424.Google Scholar
BCal 2006 BCal: An on-line Bayesian radiocarbon calibration tool. Calibrated using the 2004 atmospheric calibration curve, http://bcal.shef.ac.uk.Google Scholar
Bentley, R. Alexander, Douglas Price, T., Luning, Jens, Gronenborn, Detlef, Wahl, Joachim, and Fullagar, Paul D. 2002 Prehistoric Migration in Europe: Strontium Isotope Analysis of Early Neolithic Skeletons. Current Anthropology 43:799–804.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buntinas, Martin, and Funk, Gerald M. 2005 Statistics for the Sciences. Brooks/Cole, Belmont, California.Google Scholar
Byers, John A. 1997 American Pwnghorn: Social Adaptations and the Ghosts of Predators Past. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Byers, John A. 2003 Built for Speed: A Year in the Life of Pronghorn. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Caughley, Graeme 1974 Interpretation of Age Ratios. Journal of Wildlife Management 38:557–562.Google Scholar
Chamberlin, Ralph V. 1911 The Ethno-Botany of the Gosiute Indians of Utah. Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association 2 Part 5:331–405.Google Scholar
Chittenden, Hiram Martin 1905 Life, Letters and Travels of Father Pierre-Jean De Smet, S. J.: 1801–1873, Volume 4. Francis P. Harper, New York.Google Scholar
Clark, Ian D., and Fritz, Peter 1997 Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton.Google Scholar
Clayton, Carmen, and Kunselman, Raymond 2002 Obsidian Source Utilization at the Trappers Point Antelope Kill Site 48SU1006. Wyoming Archaeologist 46(2):83–91.Google Scholar
Current, Bill 1993 Archaeological Data Recovery Plan for the Gailiun Site (48SU1156). Sublette County, Wyoming.Google Scholar
Davis, Leslie B., Fisher, John W. Jr., Wilson, Michael C., Chomko, Stephen A., and Morlan, Richard E. 2000 Avonlea Phase Winter Fare at Lost Terrace, Upper Missouri River Valley of Montana: The Vertebrae Fauna. In Pronghorn Past and Present: Archaeology, Ethnography, and Biology. Plains Anthropologist Memoir 32., edited by Jana V. Pastor and Patrick M. Lubinski, pp. 53–69. Plains Anthropological Society, Lincoln, Nebraska.Google Scholar
De Smet, Pierre J. 1859 Western Missions and Missionaries: A Series of Letters. New York, P. J. Kennedy.Google Scholar
Dewar, Genevieve, Halkett, Dave, Hart, Tim, Orton, Jayson, and Sealy, Judith 2006 Implications of a Mass Kill Site of Springbok (Antidorcas Marsupialis) in South Africa: Hunting Practices, Gender Relations, and Sharing in the Later Stone Age. Journal of Archaeological Science 33:1266–1275.Google Scholar
Eckerle, William P. 1999 Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction and Prehistoric Lifeways. In The Trappers Point Site (48SU1006): Early Archaic Adaptations in the Upper Green River Basin, Wyoming, edited by Mark E. Miller, Paul H. Sanders, and Julie E. Francis, pp. 452–475. Cultural Resource Series No. 1. vol. 1. Office of the Wyoming State Archaeologist, Wyoming Department of State Parks and Cultural Resources, Laramie, Wyoming.Google Scholar
Eckles, David G. 1999 Taxonomic Identification, Bone Element Frequencies, and Bone Artifacts. In The Trappers Point Site (48SU1006): Early Archaic Adaptations in the Upper Green River Basin, Wyoming, edited by Mark E. Miller, Paul H. Sanders, and Julie E. Francis, pp. 193–205. Cultural Resource Series No. 1.vol. 1. Office of the Wyoming State Archaeologist, Wyoming Department of State Parks and Cultural Resources, Laramie, Wyoming.Google Scholar
Egan, Howard R. 1917 Pioneering the West 1846 to 1878. Howard R. Egan Estate, Richmond, Utah.Google Scholar
Ehleringer, James R., and Rundel, Paul W. 1989 Stable Isotopes: History, Units, and Instrumentation. In Stable Isotopes in Ecological Research, edited by Paul W. Rundel, James R. Ehleringer and Kenneth A. Nagy, pp. 1–15. Springer-Verlag, New York.Google Scholar
Ericson, Jonathon E. 1985 Strontium Isotope Characterization in the Study of Prehistoric Human Ecology. Journal of Human Evolution 14:503–514.Google Scholar
Fawcett, William Bloys Jr. 1987 Communal Hunts, Human Aggregations, Social Variation, and Climatic Change: Bison Utilization By Prehistoric Inhabitants of the Great Plains. Ph.D. Dissertation, Anthropology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Pro-Quest Dissertation Number AAT 8710451.Google Scholar
Fenner, Jack N. 2007 Prehistoric Hunting On the Range Where the Antelope Play: Archaeological Pronghorn Bonebed Formation Analysis. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Wyoming, Laramie. ProQuest Dissertation Number AAT 3259784.Google Scholar
Fenner, Jack N. 2008 The Use Of Stable Isotope Ratio Analysis To Distinguish Multiple Prey Events From Mass Kill Events. Journal of Archaeological Science 35:704–716.Google Scholar
Fenner, Jack N. and Frost, Carol D. 2009 Modern Wyoming Plant and Pronghorn Isoscapes and Their Implications for Archaeology. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, in press.Google Scholar
Fenner, Jack N., and Walker, Danny N. 2008 Mortality Date Estimation Using Fetal Pronghorn Remains. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 18:45–60.Google Scholar
Fisher, John W. Jr., and Frison, George C. 2000 Site Structure and Zooarchaeology at the Boar’s Tusk Site, Wyoming. In Pronghorn Past and Present: Archaeology, Ethnography, and Biology. Plains Anthropologist Memoir 32., edited by Jana V. Pastor and Patrick M. Lubinski, pp. 89–108. Plains Anthropological Society, Lincoln, Nebraska.Google Scholar
Fowler, Catherine S. 1989 Willard Z. Park’s Ethnographic Notes on the Northern Paiute of Western Nevada, 1933–1944. University of Utah Anthropological Papers Number 114 1. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Francis, Julie E., and Sanders, Paul H. 1999 Excavation Summary. In The Trappers Point Site (48SU1006): Early Archaic Adaptations in the Upper Green River Basin, Wyoming, edited by Mark E. Miller, Paul H. Sanders and Julie E. Francis, pp. 38–57. Cultural Resource Series No. 1. vol. 1. Office of the Wyoming State Archaeologist, Wyoming Department of State Parks and Cultural Resources, Laramie, Wyoming.Google Scholar
Frison, George 2000 Observations on Pronghorn Behavior and Taphonomic Analysis of Bonebeds: Implications for Analysis of the Eden-Farson Pronghorn Kill. In Pronghorn Past and Present: Archaeology, Ethnography, and Biology. Plains Anthropologist Memoir 32, edited by Jana V. Pastor and Patrick M. Lubinski, pp. 29–37. Plains Anthropological Society, Lincoln, Nebraska.Google Scholar
Frison, George C. 1971 Shoshonean Antelope Procurement in the Upper Green River Basin, Wyoming. Plains Anthropologist 16:258–284.Google Scholar
Frison, George C. 1978 Animal Population Studies and Cultural Inference. Plains Anthropologist 23:44–52.Google Scholar
Frison, George C. 1991 Prehistoric Hunters of the High Plains. 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Frison, George C., and Reher, Charles A. 1970 Age Determination of Buffalo by Teeth Eruption and Wear. Plains Anthropologist Memoir 7:46–50.Google Scholar
Garvie-Lok, Sandra, Varney, Tamara L., and Anne Katzenberg, M. 2004 Preparation of Bone Carbonate for Stable Isotope Analysis: The Effects of Treatment Time and Acid Concentration. Journal of Archaeological Science 31:763–776.Google Scholar
Grinnell, George Bird 1923 [1972] The Cheyenne Indians: Their History and Ways of Life. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Hedges, R. E. M. 2002 Bone Diagenesis: An Overview of Processes. Archaeometry 44:319–328.Google Scholar
Higgins, Pennilyn, and MacFadden, Bruce J. 2004 “Amount Effect” Recorded in Oxygen Isotopes of Late Glacial Horse (Equus) and Bison (Bison) Teeth from the Sonoran and Chihuahuan Deserts, Southwestern United States. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 206:337–353.Google Scholar
Hill, Matthew E. Jr. 2002 The Milnesand Site: Site Formation Study of a Paleoindian Bison Bonebed in Eastern New Mexico. Plains Anthropologist 47:323–337.Google Scholar
Hill, Matthew Glenn 2001 Paleoindian Diet and Subsistence Behavior on the Northwestern Great Plains of North America. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin, Madison. ProQuest Dissertation Number AAT 3012451.Google Scholar
Hillson, Simon 1986 Teeth. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hodell, David A., Quinn, Rhonda L., Brenner, Mark, and Kamenov, George 2004 Spatial Variation of Strontium Isotopes (87Sr/86Sr) in the Maya Region: A Tool for Tracking Ancient Human Migration. Journal of Archaeological Science 31:585–601.Google Scholar
Holdaway, Simon J., and Wandsnider, LuAnn 2006 Temporal Scales and Archaeological Landscapes from the Eastern Desert of Australia and Intermontane North America In Confronting Scale in Archaeology: Issues of Theory and Practice, edited by Gary. Lock and Brian L. Molyneaux, pp. 183–202. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Hoppe, Kathryn A. 2004 Late Pleistocene Mammoth Herd Structure, Migration Patterns, and Clovis Hunting Strategies Inferred from Isotopic Analyses of Multiple Death Assemblages. Paleobiology 30:129–145.Google Scholar
Hoppe, K. A., Koch, P. L., and Furutani, T. T. 2003 Assessing the Preservation of Biogenic Strontium in Fossil Bones and Tooth Enamel. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 13:20–28.Google Scholar
Hoskinson, Reed L., and Tester, John R. 1980 Migration Behavior of Pronghorn in Southeastern Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management 44:132–144.Google Scholar
Hyde, George S. 1968 Life of George Bent: Written From His Letters. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Irving, Washington 1986 The Adventures of Captain Bonneville U.S.A. in the Rocky Mountains and the Far West. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Karhu, Rory R., and Anderson, Stanley H. 2006 The Effect of High-Tensile Electric Fence Designs on Big-Game and Livestock Movements. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34:293–299.Google Scholar
Kelly, Isabel T. 1932 [1986] Ethnography of the Surprise Valley Paiute. In A Great Basin Shoshonean Source Book, edited by David Hurst Thomas. Garland Publishing, New York.Google Scholar
Kindig, Jean Matthews 1987 An Evaluation of an Ethnohistoric Account of a Plains Indian Communal Hunt in the Boulder Valley, 1862. Southwestern Lore 53:17–27.Google Scholar
Klein, Richard G. 1982 Age (Mortality) Profiles as a Means of Distinguishing Hunted Species from Scavenged Ones in Stone Age Archeological Sites. Paleobiology 8:151–158.Google Scholar
Klein, Richard G., and Cruz-Uribe, Kathryn 1984 The Analysis of Animal Bones from Archeological Sites. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Knight, Dennis H. 1994 Mountains and Plains: The Ecology of Wyoming Landscapes. Yale University, New Haven.Google Scholar
Knudson, K. J., Price, T. D., Buikstra, J. E., and Blom, D. E. 2004 The Use of Strontium Isotope Analysis to Investigate Tiwanaku Migration and Mortuary Ritual in Bolivia and Peru. Archaeometry 46:5–18.Google Scholar
Koch, Paul L. 1998 Isotopic Reconstruction of Past Continental Environments. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26:573–613.Google Scholar
Koch, Paul L., Hoppe, Kathryn A., and David Webb, S. 1998 The Isotopic Ecology of late Pleistocene mammals in North America: Part 1. Florida. Chemical Geology 152:119–138.Google Scholar
Koch, Paul L., Tuross, Noreen, and Fogel, Marilyn L. 1997 The Effects of Sample Treatment and Diagenesis on the Isotopic Integrity of Carbonate in Biogenic Hydroxylapatite. Journal of Archaeological Science 24:417–429.Google Scholar
Kohlmann, Stephan G. 2004 Population Dynamics and Modeling. In Pronghorn Ecology and Management, edited by Bart W. O’Gara and Jim D. Yoakum, pp. 644–674. University Press of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Kohn, Matthew J., and Ceding, Thure E. 2002 Stable Isotope Compositions of Biological Apatite. In Phosphates. Geochemical, Geobiological, and Materials Importance. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, edited by Matthew J. Kohn, John Rakovan, and John M. Hughes, pp. 455–488. vol. 48. Mineralogical Society of America, Washington D. C.Google Scholar
Larson, Robert, Bozovich, Joe, and Krmpotich, Jack 1969 Preliminary Report on Farson Site #48 SW 304. Wyoming Archaeologist 12(4): 13–16.Google Scholar
Lee-Thorp, Julia, and Sponheimer, Matt 2003 Three Case Studies Used to Reassess the Reliability of Fossil Bone and Enamel Isotope Signals for Paleodietary Analysis. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 22:208–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee-Thorp, Julia, and Sponheimer, Matt 2006 Contributions of Biochemistry to Understanding Hominin Dietary Ecology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 49:131–148.Google Scholar
Leopold, Luna B., and Vita-Finzi, Claudio 2005 Archaeological Trash: Geomorphology and Early Human Occupation in Wyoming. Catena 62:1–13.Google Scholar
Levin, Naomi E., Ceding, Thomas E., Passey, Benjamin H., Harris, John M., and Ehleringer, James R. 2006 A Stable Isotope Aridity Index for Terrestrial Environments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 103:11201–11205.Google Scholar
Lowie, Robert H. 1909 [1986] Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History: The Northern Shoshone. Volume 2 Part 2. In A Great Basin Shoshonean Source Book, edited by David Hurst Thomas. Garland Publishing, New York.Google Scholar
Lowie, Robert H. 1924 [1986] Notes on Shoshonean Ethnography. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, Volume 20, Part 3. In A Great Basin Shoshonean Source Book, edited by David Hurst Thomas. Garland Publishing, New York.Google Scholar
Lubinski, Patrick M. 1997 Pronghorn Intensification in the Wyoming Basin: A Study of Mortality Patterns and Prehistoric Hunting Strategies. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
Lubinski, Patrick M. 1999 The Communal Pronghorn Hunt: A Review of the Ethnographic and Archaeological Evidence. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 21:158–181.Google Scholar
Lubinski, Patrick M. 2000a Prehistoric Pronghorn Hunting in Southwest Wyoming. In Pronghorn Past and Present: Archaeology, Ethnography, and Biology. Plains Anthropologist Memoir 32, edited by Jana V. Pastor and Patrick M. Lubinski, pp. 109–118. Plains Anthropological Society, Lincoln, Nebraska.Google Scholar
Lubinski, Patrick M. 2000b A Comparison of Methods for Evaluating Ungulate Mortality Distributions. Archaeozoologica 11:121–134.Google Scholar
Lubinski, Patrick M. 2001 Estimating Age and Season of Death of Pronghorn Antelope (Antilocapra americana Ord) by Means of Tooth Eruption and Wear. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 11:218–230.Google Scholar
Lubinski, Patrick M., and O’Brien, Christopher J. 2001 Observations of Seasonality and Mortality from a Recent Catastrophic Death Assemblage. Journal of Archaeological Science 28:833–842.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. Lee 1987 On the Analysis of Vertebrae Mortality Profiles: Sample Size, Mortality Type, and Hunting Pressure. American Antiquity 52:125–142.Google Scholar
Lytle, John C. 1969 Parson Site 48 SW 304. Wyoming Archaeologist 12(4): 17–19.Google Scholar
McCabe, Richard E., O’Gara, Bart W., and Reeves, Henry M. 2004 Prairie Ghost: Pronghorn and Human Interaction in Early America. University Press of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Middleton, Jessica L., Lubinski, Patrick M., and Metcalf, Michael D. 2007 Ceramics from the Pirehole Basin Site and Pirehole Phase in the Wyoming Basin. Plains Anthropologist 52:29–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, Mark E. 1999 Seasonality of the Early Archaic Trappers Point Pronghorn Bonebed. In The Trappers Point Site (48SU1006): Early Archaic Adaptations in the Upper Green River Basin, Wyoming, edited by Mark E. Miller, Paul H. Sanders and Julie E. Francis, pp. 206–241. Cultural Resource Series No. 1. vol. 1. Office of the Wyoming State Archaeologist, Wyoming Department of State Parks and Cultural Resources, Laramie, Wyoming.Google Scholar
Miller, Mark E. and Sanders, Paul H. 2000 The Trappers Point Site (48SU1006): Early Archaic Adaptations and Pronghorn Procurement in the Upper Green River Basin, Wyoming. In Pronghorn Past and Present: Archaeology, Ethnography, and Biology. Plains Anthropologist Memoir 32., edited by Jana V. Pastor and Patrick M. Lubinski, pp. 39–52. Plains Anthropological Society, Lincoln, Nebraska.Google Scholar
Miller, Mark E., Sanders, Paul H., and Prancis, Julie E. 1999a The Trappers Point Site (48SU1006): Early Archaic Adaptations in the Upper Green River Basin, Wyoming. Cultural Resource Series No. 1. Office of the Wyoming State Archaeologist, Laramie, Wyoming.Google Scholar
Miller, Mark E., Sanders, Paul H., and Prancis, Julie E. 1999b Intermountain Archaeology and the Trappers Point Site. In The Trappers Point Site (48SU1006): Early Archaic Adaptations in the Upper Green River Basin, Wyoming, edited by Mark E. Miller, Paul H. Sanders, and Julie E. Prancis, pp. 476–489. Cultural Resource Series No. 1. vol. 2. Office of the Wyoming State Archaeologist, Wyoming Department of State Parks and Cultural Resources, Laramie, Wyoming.Google Scholar
Moore, David S., and McCabe, George P. 1999 Introduction to the Practice of Statistics. W. H. Freeman, New York.Google Scholar
Nimmo, Barry W. 1971 Population Dynamics of a Wyoming Pronghorn Cohort from the Eden-Farson Site, 48SW304. Plains Anthropologist 16:285–288.Google Scholar
O’Connell, James R, Hawkes, K, and Blurton Jones, N. 1990 Reanalysis of Large Mammal Body Part Transport Among the Hadza. Journal of Archaeological Science 17:301–316.Google Scholar
O’Connell, James R, and Marshall, Brendan 1989 Analysis of Kangaroo Body Part Transport among the Alyawara of Central Australia. Journal of Archaeological Science 16:393–405.Google Scholar
O’Gara, Bart W. 2004 Physiology and Genetics. In Pronghorn Ecology and Management, edited by Bart W. O’Gara and Jim D. Yoakum, pp. 231–273. University Press of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
O’Gara, Bart W., and Yoakum, Jim D. 2004 Pronghorn Ecology and Management. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Ottman, Jim 1992 The Plunge: A Herd Falls to Its Death. Wyoming Wildlife 52:10–13.Google Scholar
Price, T. D., Burton, J. H., and Bentley, R. A. 2002 The Characterization of Biologically Available Strontium Isotope Ratios for the Study of Prehistoric Migration. Archaeometry 44:117–135.Google Scholar
Price, T. Douglas, Johnson, Clark M., Ezzo, Joseph A., Ericson, Jonathon, and Burton, James H. 1994 Residential Mobility in the Prehistoric Southwest United States: A Preliminary Study using Strontium Isotope Analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 21:315–330.Google Scholar
Reiss, David, and Walker, Danny N. 1982 Pronghorn Utilization at 48UT390 in Southwestern Wyoming. Wyoming Contributions to Anthropology 3:1–25.Google Scholar
Reynolds, Timothy D. 1984 Daily Summer Movements, Activity Patterns, and Home Range of Pronghorn. Northwest Science 58:300–311.Google Scholar
Sanders, Paul H. 1999 Investigation of Bone Weathering Stages, Age Composition, and Spatial Distributions of Lithic and Faunal Remains. In The Trappers Point Site (48SU1006): Early Archaic Adaptations in the Upper Green River Basin, Wyoming, edited by Mark E. Miller, Paul H. Sanders, and Julie E. Francis, pp. 364–451. Cultural Resource Series No. 1. vol. 2. Office of the Wyoming State Archaeologist, Wyoming Department of State Parks and Cultural Resources, Laramie, Wyoming.Google Scholar
Sanders, Paul H., and Miller, Mark E. 2004 Archaeological Evidence of Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) Migration in the Upper Green River Basin of Wyoming: Implications for Wildlife Management. In Zooarchaeology and Conservation Biology, edited by R. Lee Lyman and Kenneth P. Cannon, pp. 164—177. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Sawyer, Hall, and Lindzey, Fred 2000 Jackson Hole Pronghorn Study. Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Laramie, Wyoming.Google Scholar
Schoolcraft, Henry R. 1860 History, Antiquities, Language, Ethnology, Pictography, Rites, Superstitions, and Mythology of the Indian Tribes of the United States, Volume IV. J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Schroedl, Alan R. 1985 Archaic and Late Prehistoric Adaptation in Southwestern Wyoming: The Frontier Pipeline Excavations. Bureau of Land Management Wyoming Cultural Resource Series Number 3.Google Scholar
SHPO 1979 48SW1373 (Boars Tusk) Site Report. Copy on file at Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office Cultural Records Office, Laramie, Wyoming.Google Scholar
SHPO 1981–1999 48UT390 (Austin Wash) Site Reports. CRM site reports provided by various organizations. Copy on file at Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office Cultural Records Office, Laramie, Wyoming.Google Scholar
Steele, Teresa E. 2003 Using Mortality Profiles to Infer Behavior in the Fossil Record. Journal of Mammalogy 84:418–430.Google Scholar
Steward, Julian H. 1933 Ethnography of the Owens Valley Paiute. University of California Publications in American Anthropology and Ethnology 33(3):233–350.Google Scholar
Steward, Julian H. 1938 Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups. Smithsonian Institution Bureau of merican Ethnology Bulletin 120. Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC.Google Scholar
Stiner, Mary C. 1990 The Use of Mortality Patterns in Archaeological Studies of Hominid Predatory Adaptations. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 9:305–351.Google Scholar
Stiner, Mary C. 1991a An Interspecific Perspective on the Emergence of the Modern Human Predatory Niche. In Human Predators and Prey Mortality, edited by Mary C. Stiner, pp. 149–185. Westview Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Stiner, Mary C. 1991b Introduction: Actualistic and Archaeological Studies of Prey Mortality. In HumanPredators and Prey Mortality, edited by Mary C. Stiner, pp. 1–13. Westview Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Sundstrom, Linea 2000 Cheyenne Pronghorn Procurement and Ceremony. In Pronghorn Past and Present: Archaeology, Ethnography, and Biology. Plains Anthropologist Memoir 32., edited by JanaV. Pastor and Patrick M. Lubinski, pp. 119–132. Plains Anthropological Society, Lincoln, Nebraska.Google Scholar
Tieszen, Larry L., and Fagre, Tim 1993 Carbon Isotope Variability in Modern and Archaeological Maize. Journal of Archaeological Science 20:25–40.Google Scholar
Todd, Lawrence C. 1987 Analysis of Kill-Butchery Bonebeds and Interpretation of Paleoindian Hunting. In The Evolution of Human Hunting, edited by M. Nitecki and D. Nitecki, pp. 225–266. Plenum Press, New York.Google Scholar
Todd, Lawrence C, Hofman, Jack L., and Bertrand Schultz, C. 1992 Faunal Analysis and Paleoindian Studies: A Reexamination of the Lipscomb Bison Bonebed. Plains Anthropologist 37:137–165.Google Scholar
Todd, Lawrence C, Jones, David C., Walker, Robert S., Burnett, Paul C., and Eighmy, Jeffrey 2001 Late Archaic Bison Hunters in Northern Colorado: 1997–1999 Excavations at the Kaplan-Hoover Bison Bonebed (5LR3953). Plains Anthropologist 46:125–147.Google Scholar
Ugan, Andrew, Bright, Jason, and Rogers, Alan 2003 When Is Technology Worth the Trouble? Journal of Archaeological Science 30:1315–1329.Google Scholar
Whittaker, William E., and Enloe, James G. 2000 Bison Dentition Studies Revisited: Resolving Ambiquity between Archaeological and Modern Control Samples. Archaeozoologica 11:113–120.Google Scholar
Widga, Chris 2004 Early Archaic Subsistence in the Central Plains: The Spring Creek (25FT31) Fauna. Plains Anthropologist 49:25–58.Google Scholar
Wilson, S. R., and Ward, G. K. 1981 Evaluation and Clustering of Radiocarbon Age Determinations: Procedures and Paradigms. Archaeometry 23:19–39.Google Scholar
Yoakum, Jim D. 2004a Foraging Ecology, Diet Studies and Nutrient Values. In Pronghorn Ecology and Management, edited by Bart W. O’Gara and Jim D. Yoakum, pp. 447–502. University Press of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Yoakum, Jim D. 2004b Habitat Conservation. In Pronghorn Ecology and Management, edited by Bart W. O’Gara and Jim D. Yoakum, pp. 571–630. University Press of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar