Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-xtgtn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T22:17:56.862Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A Bioarchaeological Study of African American Health and Mortality in the Post-Emancipation U.S. South

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 August 2020

Maria Franklin Open the ORCID record for Maria Franklin [Opens in a new window]  and
Samuel M. Wilson
Maria Franklin*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Texas-Austin, 2201 Speedway Avenue, Austin, TX78712, USA
Samuel M. Wilson
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Texas-Austin, 2201 Speedway Avenue, Austin, TX78712, USA
*
(mfranklin@austin.utexas.edu, corresponding author)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

After emancipation, most African Americans remained tethered to agricultural economies, while others migrated to cities seeking better opportunities. Although bioarchaeologists have made significant interventions in researching people of African descent, there are relatively few published comparative studies that address their morbidity and mortality after slavery. This study compares the bioarchaeological evidence for rural and urban southern United States populations to address disparities in health and longevity. It considers the biological effects of racism, including the health impacts of poverty, disease, and malnourishment. Although historians and demographers argue that urban life was especially detrimental to health, the results of this research suggest greater complexity in African American well-being. Whereas urban adults had higher midlife mortality and reduced longevity compared to their rural counterparts, both rural and urban children experienced poor health. Rural child mortality and morbidity varied significantly, suggesting differences in diet and disease exposure across rural communities. With regard to gender, rural and urban women died at younger ages than men. This disparity in mortality is partly attributed to black women's working and reproductive lives within the context of racism and gender inequality.

Después de la emancipación, la mayoría de los afroamericanos permanecieron atados a las economías agrícolas, mientras que otros emigraron a las ciudades para buscar mejores oportunidades de vida. Aunque los bio-arqueólogos han llevado a cabo investigaciones importantes sobre la gente de descendencia africana, hay pocos estudios que se enfoquen en su mortalidad y morbilidad después de la esclavitud y de manera comparativa. El presente estudio compara la evidencia bio-arqueológica de poblaciones urbanas y rurales del sur de Estados Unidos para estudiar disparidades de salud y longevidad. Se enfoca en los efectos biológicos del racismo, incluyendo el impacto que pudieron tener la pobreza, la enfermedad, y la malnutrición sobre la salud. Aunque los historiadores y demógrafos han dicho que la vida urbana tenía un efecto negativo sobre la salud, los resultados de esta investigación sugieren que el bienestar de los afroamericanos era más complejo que si vivían o no en la ciudad. Los adultos urbanos tenían una mortalidad mayor hacia la mitad de la vida promedio, y una longevidad reducida comparada con los adultos rurales, pero los niños de áreas tanto rurales como urbanas tenían mala salud. Tanto la mortalidad como la morbilidad entre los niños rurales variaban mucho, lo cual sugiere que había muchas diferencias en dieta y en enfermedades en las poblaciones rurales. En términos de género, las mujeres rurales y urbanas morían a una edad menor que los hombres. La vida reproductiva y el trabajo de las mujeres negras, dentro del contexto del racismo, son factores que pueden explicar las disparidades de género en el bienestar.

Keywords

racism and healthmaternal healthenamel hypoplasiaporotic hyperostosisrural and urban African Americansmortality and longevityracismo y saludsalud maternahipoplasia del esmaltehiperostosis poróticaafroamericanos rurales y urbanosmortalidad y longevidad
Type
Articles
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 85 , Issue 4 , October 2020 , pp. 652 - 675
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2020. Published by the Society for American Archaeology and Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Agarwal, Sabrina C., and Wesp, Julie K. (editors) 2017 Exploring Sex and Gender in Bioarchaeology. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Alston, Lee J., and Kauffman, Kyle D. 1998 Up, down, and off the Agricultural Ladder: New Evidence and Implications of Agricultural Mobility for Blacks in the Postbellum South. Agricultural History 72(2):263–279.Google Scholar
Arias, Elizabeth, and Xu, Jiaquan 2018 United States Life Tables, 2017. National Vital Statistics Reports 68(7):1–65.Google Scholar
Ayers, Edward L. 2007 The Promise of the New South: Life after Reconstruction. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Barnes, Jodi A. 2011 The Materiality of Freedom: Archaeologies of Post-Emancipation Life. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia.Google Scholar
Battle-Baptiste, Whitney 2011 Black Feminist Archaeology. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California.Google Scholar
Beauchesne, Patrick, and Agarwal, Sabrina C. 2018 Children and Childhood in Bioarchaeology. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blakey, Michael L. 2001 Bioarchaeology of the African Diaspora in the Americas: Its Origins and Scope. Annual Review of Anthropology 30:387–422.10.1146/annurev.anthro.30.1.387CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blakey, Michael L., Leslie, Teresa E., and Reidy, Joseph P. 1994 Frequency and Chronological Distribution of Dental Enamel Hypoplasia in Enslaved African Americans: A Test of the Weaning Hypothesis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 95:371–383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blakey, Michael L., and Rankin-Hill, Lesley M. 2016 Political Economy of African Forced Migration and Enslavement in Colonial New York: An Historical Biology Perspective. In New Directions in Biocultural Anthropology: Biocultural Approaches to Health and Diet, edited by Zuckerman, Molly K. and Martin, Debra L., pp. 107–132. Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Blom, Deborah E., Buikstra, Jane E., Keng, Linda, Tomczak, Paula D., Shoreman, Eleanor, and Stevens-Tuttle, Debbie 2005 Anemia and Childhood Mortality: Latitudinal Patterning along the Coast of Pre-Columbian Peru. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 127:152–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brickley, Megan B. 2018 Cribra Orbitalia and Porotic Hyperostosis: A Biological Approach to Diagnosis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 167:896–902.Google Scholar
Buchner, C. Andrew, Breitburg, Emanuel, Williams, Charles, and Williams, Elizabeth A. 1999 At Rest, Again: The Ridley Graveyard (40WM208) Archaeological Relocation Project, Williamson County, Tennessee. Panamerican Consultants Inc. Submitted to Gresham Smith and Partners and the Tennessee Department of Transportation, Contract No. 94840120304.Google Scholar
Burton, Orville Vernon 1998 African American Status and Identity in a Postbellum Community: An Analysis of the Manuscript Census Returns. Agricultural History 72(2):213–240.Google Scholar
Buzon, Michele R., Walker, Phillip L., Verhagen, Francine Drayer, and Kerr, Susan L. 2005 Health and Disease in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco: Skeletal Evidence from a Forgotten Cemetery. Historical Archaeology 39(2):1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carson, Carolyn Leonard 1994 And the Results Showed Promise: Physicians, Childbirth, and Southern Black Migrant Women, 1916–1930; Pittsburgh as a Case Study. Journal of American Ethnic History 14(1):32–64.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2012 Malaria Morbidity and Mortality 1920–1946. Electronic document, https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/history/uscurves.html, accessed September 2, 2019.Google Scholar
City of Dallas Health Department Collection 1870–1975 Register and Researcher's Guide, Texas Archival Resources Online, Dallas Public Library. Electronic document, https://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/taro/dalpub/08212/dpub-08212.html#a0, accessed January 19, 2020.Google Scholar
Clay, Karen, Schmick, Ethan, and Troesken, Werner 2019 The Rise and Fall of Pellagra in the American South. Journal of Economic History 79:32–62.Google Scholar
Collins, Patricia Hill 2000 Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. 2nd ed. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Condon, Cynthia G., Becker, Joy L., Edgar, Heather, Davidson, James M., Hoffman, Juerena, Kalima, Patricia, Kysar, Daniel, Moorehead, Susan, Owens, Victoria, and Condon, Keith 1998 Freedman's Cemetery: Site 41DL316, Dallas, Texas, Assessments of Sex, Age at Death, Stature and Date of Interment. Report No. 9. Geo-Marine Inc. Submitted to the Texas Department of Transportation. Copies Available from Geo-Marine, Plano, Texas.Google Scholar
Costa, Dora L., and Kahn, Matthew E. 2015 Declining Mortality Inequality within Cities during the Health Transition. American Economic Review 105:564–569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Croft, P., Coggon, D., Cruddas, M., and Cooper, C. 1992 Osteoarthritis of the Hip: An Occupational Disease in Farmers. British Medical Journal 304:1269–1272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cutler, David, and Miller, Grant 2005 The Role of Public Health Improvements in Health Advances: The Twentieth-Century United States. Demography 42:1–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cutright, P., and Shorter, E. 1979 The Effects of Health on the Completed Fertility of Nonwhite and White U.S. Women Born from 1867 through 1935. Journal of Social History 13:191–218.Google ScholarPubMed
Davidson, James M. 2004 Mediating Race and Class through the Death Experience: Power Relations and Resistance Strategies of an African-American Community, Dallas, Texas (1869–1907). PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin.Google Scholar
Davidson, James M., Rose, Jerome C., Gutmann, Myron P., Haines, Michael R., Condon, Keith, and Condon, Cindy 2002 The Quality of African-American Life in the Old Southwest near the Turn of the Twentieth Century. In The Backbone of History: Health and Nutrition in the Western Hemisphere, edited by Steckel, Richard H. and Rose, Jerome C., pp. 226–277. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de la Cova, Carlina 2010 Cultural Patterns of Trauma among 19th-Century-Born Males in Cadaver Collections. American Anthropologist 112:589–606.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de la Cova, Carlina 2011 Race, Health, and Disease in 19th-Century-Born Males. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 144:526–537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dirks, Robert 2016 Food in the Gilded Age: What Ordinary Americans Ate. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Lanham, Maryland.Google Scholar
Dirks, Robert T., and Duran, Nancy 2001 African American Dietary Patterns at the Beginning of the 20th Century. Journal of Nutrition 131:1881–1889.10.1093/jn/131.7.1881CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elman, Cheryl, London, Andrew S., and McGuire, Robert A. 2015 Fertility, Economic Development, and Health in the Early Twentieth-Century U.S. South. Journal of Interdisciplinary History 46:185–223.10.1162/JINH_a_00831CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engerrand, Steven W. 1978 Black and Mulatto Mobility and Stability in Dallas, Texas, 1880–1910. Phylon 39:203–215.10.2307/274516CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ewbank, Douglas C. 1987 History of Black Mortality and Health before 1940. Milbank Quarterly 65:100–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fairbanks, Robert B. 2014 The War on Slums in the Southwest: Public Housing and Slum Clearance in Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico, 1935–1965. Temple University Press, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Feigenbaum, James J., Muller, Christopher, and Wrigley-Field, Elizabeth 2019 Regional and Racial Inequality in Infectious Disease Mortality in U.S. Cities, 1900–1948. Demography 56:1371–1388.10.1007/s13524-019-00789-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferris, Marcie 2012 The Deepest Reality of Life: Southern Sociology, the WPA, and Food in the New South. Southern Cultures 18(2):6–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galveston-Dallas News 1911 The Housing Problem in Texas: A Study of Physical Conditions under Which the Other Half Lives. Galveston-Dallas News, Dallas.Google Scholar
Geller, Pamela L. 2008 Conceiving Sex: Fomenting a Feminist Bioarchaeology. Journal of Social Archaeology 8:113–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geller, Pamela L. 2017 The Bioarchaeology of Socio-Sexual Lives: Queering Common Sense about Sex, Gender, and Sexuality. Springer, Cham, Switzerland.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glover, James W. 1921 United States Life Tables, 1890, 1901, 1910, and 1901–1910. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Goodman, Alan H. 2016 Disease and Dying while Black: How Racism, Not Race, Gets under the Skin. In New Directions in Biocultural Anthropology: Biocultural Approaches to Health and Diet, edited by Zuckerman, Molly K. and Martin, Debra L., pp. 69–87. Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Goodman, Alan H., and Armelagos, George J. 1985 The Chronological Distribution of Enamel Hypoplasia in Human Permanent Incisor and Canine Teeth. Archives of Oral Biology 30:503–507.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, Alan H., and Martin, Debra L. 2002 Reconstructing Health Profiles from Skeletal Remains. In The Backbone of History: Health and Nutrition in the Western Hemisphere, edited by Steckel, Richard and Rose, Jerome C., pp. 11–60. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gowland, Rebecca L., and Western, A. G. 2012 Morbidity in the Marshes: Using Spatial Epidemiology to Investigate Skeletal Evidence for Malaria in Anglo-Saxon England (AD 410–1050). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 147:301–311.10.1002/ajpa.21648CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grauer, Anne L., Williams, Laura A., and Bird, M. Catherine 2016 Life and Death in Nineteenth-Century Peoria, Illinois: Taking a Biocultural Approach towards Understanding the Past. In New Directions in Biocultural Anthropology: Biocultural Approaches to Health and Diet, edited by Zuckerman, Molly K. and Martin, Debra L., pp. 201–217. Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haines, Michael R. 2001 The Urban Mortality Transition in the United States, 1800–1940. Working Paper No. 134. National Bureau of Economic Research, Washington, DC.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haines, Michael R., and Steckel, Richard H. 2000 A Population History of North America. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hamilton, Brady E., Hoyert, Donna L., Martin, Joyce A., Strobino, Donna M., and Guyer, Bernard 2013 Annual Summary of Vital Statistics: 2010–2011. Pediatrics 131:548–558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hersey, Mark D. 2010 “Their Plows Singing beneath the Sandy Loam”: African American Agriculture in the Late-Nineteenth-Century South. In African Americans in the Nineteenth Century: People and Perspectives, edited by Haggard, Dixie Ray, pp. 133–147. ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, California.Google Scholar
Holland, Claudia C. 1990 Tenant Farms of the Past, Present, and Future: An Ethnoarchaeological View. Historical Archaeology 24(4):60–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hong, Sok Chul 2007 The Burden of Early Exposure to Malaria in the United States, 1850–1860: Malnutrition and Immune Disorders: 1. Journal of Economic History 67:1001–1035.10.1017/S0022050707000472CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphreys, Margaret 2009 How Four Once Common Diseases Were Eliminated from the American South. Health Affairs 28:1734–1744.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunter, Tera W. 1997 To ‘Joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women’s Lives and Labors after the Civil War. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Jantz, Lee Meadows, and Wilson, Rebecca J. 2005 Osteological Analysis of Burials from Providence Baptist Church (40SY619). In Archaeological and Osteological Investigations of the Providence Baptist Church Cemetery (40SY619), Memphis-Shelby County Airport, Memphis, Shelby County, Tennessee, edited by Oster, Warren J., Weaver, Guy G., Richardson, Jamison P., and Wyatt, Jason M., Appendix 1. Copies available from Weaver & Associates, Memphis.Google Scholar
Jones, Jacqueline 2009 Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, from Slavery to the Present. Basic Books, New York.Google Scholar
Kiple, Kenneth F., and Kiple, Virginia H. 1977 Slave Child Mortality: Some Nutritional Answers to a Perennial Puzzle. Journal of Social History 10:284–309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuzawa, Christopher W., and Gravlee, Clarence C. 2016 Beyond Genetic Race: Biocultural Insights into the Causes of Racial Health Disparities. In New Directions in Biocultural Anthropology: Biocultural Approaches to Health and Diet, edited by Zuckerman, Molly K. and Martin, Debra L., pp. 89–105. Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leavitt, Judith Walzer 1986 Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750 to 1950. Rev. ed. Oxford University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Leigh, J. Adam, Alvarez, Manrique, and Rodriguez, Carlos J. 2016 Ethnic Minorities and Coronary Heart Disease: An Update and Future Directions. Current Atherosclerosis Reports 18(2):1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Litwack, Leon F. 1998 Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow. Knopf, New York.Google Scholar
Loudon, Irvine 1988 Maternal Mortality: 1880–1950: Some Regional and International Comparisons. Social History of Medicine 1:183–228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maeda, Hiroshi 2018 The Rise of the Current Mortality Pattern of the United States, 1890–1930. American Journal of Epidemiology 187:639–646.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McMillen, Sally 1985 Mother's Sacred Duty: Breast-Feeding Patterns among Middle- and Upper-Class Women in the Antebellum South. Journal of Southern History 51:333–356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newman, Sophie L., and Gowland, Rebecca L. 2017 Dedicated Followers of Fashion? Bioarchaeological Perspectives on Socio-Economic Status, Inequality, and Health in Urban Children from the Industrial Revolution (18th–19th C), England. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 27:217–229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noonan, Allan, Velasco-Mondragon, Hector E., and Wagner, Fernando 2016 Improving the Health of African Americans in the USA. Public Health Reviews 37:12. DOI 10.1186/s40985-016-0025-4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oster, Warren J., Weaver, Guy G., Richardson, Jamison P., and Wyatt, Jason M. 2005 Archaeological and Osteological Investigations of the Providence Baptist Church Cemetery (40SY619), Memphis-Shelby County Airport, Memphis, Shelby County, Tennessee. Submitted to Memphis-Shelby County Airport Authority and Allen & Hoshall. Copies available from Weaver & Associates, Memphis.Google Scholar
Oxenham, Marc, and Cavill, Ivor 2010 Porotic Hyperostosis and Cribra Orbitalia: The Erythropoietic Response to Iron-Deficiency Anaemia. Anthropological Science 118:199–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palmer, David Thomas 2005 “Counterpunch the Devil with the Word”: African American Daily Life at Alma and Riverlake Plantations, Louisiana, 1870–1940. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Penningroth, Dylan C. 2003 The Claims of Kinfolk: African American Property and Community in the Nineteenth-Century South. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Peter, Duane E., Prior, Marsha, Green, Melissa M., and Clow, Victoria G. 2000 Freedman's Cemetery: A Legacy of a Black Community in Dallas, Texas. Geo-Marine Inc. Submitted to the Texas Department of Transportation, Contract No. 8-0473. Copies available from Geo-Marine, Plano, Texas.Google Scholar
Prather, Cynthia, Fuller, Taleria R., Marshall, Khiya J., and Jeffries, William L. 2016 The Impact of Racism on the Sexual and Reproductive Health of African American Women. Journal of Women's Health 25:664–671.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preston, Samuel H., and Haines, Michael R. 1991 Fatal Years: Child Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century America. Princeton University Press, Princeton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rankin-Hill, Lesley M. 1997 A Biohistory of Nineteenth-Century Afro-Americans: The Burial Remains of a Philadelphia Cemetery. Praeger, Santa Barbara, California.Google Scholar
Rankin-Hill, Lesley M. 2016 Identifying the First African Baptist Church: Searching for Historically Invisible People. In New Directions in Biocultural Anthropology: Biocultural Approaches to Health and Diet, edited by Zuckerman, Molly K. and Martin, Debra L., pp. 133–156. Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, Jerome C. (editor) 1985 Gone to a Better Land: A Biohistory of a Rural Black Cemetery in the Post-Reconstruction South. Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series No. 25. Submitted to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Copies available from the Arkansas Archeological Survey, Fayetteville.Google Scholar
Shogren, Michael G., Turner, Kenneth R., and Perroni, Jody C. 1989 Elko Switch Cemetery: An Archaeological Perspective. Division of Archaeology, Alabama State Museum of Natural History, University of Alabama. Submitted to the Alabama Highway Department.Google Scholar
Sledge, Daniel, and Mohler, George 2013 Eliminating Malaria in the American South: An Analysis of the Decline of Malaria in 1930s Alabama. American Journal of Public Health 103:1381–1392.10.2105/AJPH.2012.301065CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steckel, Richard H. 1995 Stature and the Standard of Living. Journal of Economic Literature 33:1903–1940.Google Scholar
Stone, Pamela K. 2016 Biocultural Perspectives on Maternal Mortality and Obstetrical Death from the Past to the Present. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 159(S61):S150–S171.Google ScholarPubMed
Teague, Megan A., and Davidson, James M. 2011 Victorian Ideals and Evolving Realities: Late-Nineteenth Century and Early-Twentieth Century Black Dallas and an Engendered African America. In The Materiality of Freedom: Archaeologies of Post-Emancipation Life, edited by Barnes, Jodi A., pp. 87–114. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia.Google Scholar
Thelin, A., Jansson, B., Jacobsson, B., and Ström, H. 1997 Coxarthrosis and Farm Work: A Case-Referent Study. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 32(5):497–501.3.0.CO;2-P>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, Brandon S. 2009 A Comparative Health Analysis of the Historic African American Cemetery Population from 1LA151, Foster Cemetery, to Three Contemporaneous Historic Southeastern African American Cemetery Populations. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Thompson, Brandon S. 2017 A Comparison of Ethnicity and Tuberculosis in the Historic Southeast. Historical Archaeology 51:531–541.Google Scholar
Tolnay, Stewart E. 1981 Trends in Total and Marital Fertility for Black Americans, 1886–1899. Demography 18:443–463.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tolnay, Stewart E. 1987 The Decline of Black Marital Fertility in the Rural South. American Sociological Review 52:211–217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tolnay, Stewart E., and Glynn, Patricia J. 1994 The Persistence of High Fertility in the American South on the Eve of the Baby Boom. Demography 31:615–631.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trinity River Authority of Texas 2019 History of Water Quality in the Trinity River Basin. Electronic document, http://www.trinityra.org/default.asp?contentID=91, accessed February 1, 2019.Google Scholar
Troesken, Werner 2004 Water, Race, and Disease. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tuma, Michael W. 2006 Ethnoarchaeology of Subsistence Behaviors within a Rural African American Community: Implications for Interpreting Vertebrate Faunal Data from Slave Quarters Areas of Antebellum Plantation Sites. Historical Archaeology 40(4):1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau 1881 United States Decennial Census for 1880. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau 1891 United States Decennial Census for 1890. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau 1901 United States Decennial Census for 1900. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau 1910 Statistics of Cities Having a Population of over 30,000, 1907. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau 1921 United States Decennial Census for 1920. Government Printing Office, Washington DC.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Commerce 1916 General Statistics of Cities: 1915. Bureau of the Census. Electronic document, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044026651810&view=1up&seq=7, accessed January 12, 2019.Google Scholar
Vanderpool, Emily M. R., and Turner, Bethany L. 2013 Stable Isotopic Reconstruction of Diet and Residential Mobility in a Postbellum African American Community in Rural Georgia. Southeastern Archaeology 32:97–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, Phillip L., Bathurst, Rhonda R., Richman, Rebecca, Gjerdrum, Thor, and Andrushko, Valerie A. 2009 The Causes of Porotic Hyperostosis and Cribra Orbitalia: A Reappraisal of the Iron-Deficiency-Anemia Hypothesis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 139:109–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, Phillip L., Johnson, John R., and Lambert, Patricia M. 1988 Age and Sex Biases in the Preservation of Human Skeletal Remains. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 76:183–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watkins, Beverly 1985 Historical Background. In Gone to a Better Land: A Biohistory of a Rural Black Cemetery in the Post-Reconstruction South, edited by Rose, Jerome C., pp. 6–17. Arkansas Archeological Survey, Fayetteville.Google Scholar
Watkins, Rachel J. 2012 Variation in Health and Socioeconomic Status within the W. Montague Cobb Skeletal Collection: Degenerative Joint Disease, Trauma and Cause of Death. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 22:22–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, Elizabeth, and Jurmain, R. 2007 Osteoarthritis Revisited: A Contemporary Review of Aetiology. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 17:437–450.10.1002/oa.889CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, Tim D., and Folkens, Pieter A. 2005 The Human Bone Manual. Elsevier Academic, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Wilcox, Lynne S. 2008 Worms and Germs, Drink and Dementia: US Health, Society, and Policy in the Early 20th Century. Preventing Chronic Disease 5(4):A135.Google ScholarPubMed
Wilkie, Laurie A. 2003 The Archaeology of Mothering: An African-American Midwife's Tale. Routledge, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkison, Kyle G. 2008 Yeomen, Sharecroppers, and Socialists: Plain Folk Protest in Texas, 1870–1914. Texas A&M University Press, College Station.Google Scholar
Wilson, Rebecca J. 2005 The Health Status of Early 20th Century Blacks from the Providence Baptist Church Cemetery (40SY619) in Shelby County, Tennessee. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Wood, James W., Milner, George R., Harpending, Henry C., Weiss, Kenneth M., Cohen, Mark N., Eisenberg, Leslie E., Hutchinson, Dale L., Jankauskas, Rimantas, Česnys, Gintautas, Katzenberg, M. Anne, Lukacs, John R., McGrath, Janet W., Roth, Eric Abella, Ubelaker, Douglas H., and Wilkinson, Richard G. 1992 The Osteological Paradox: Problems of Inferring Prehistoric Health from Skeletal Samples [and Comments and Reply]. Current Anthropology 33:343–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zuckerman, Molly K., and Crandall, John 2019 Reconsidering Sex and Gender in Relation to Health and Disease in Bioarchaeology. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 54: 161–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Franklin and Wilson supplementary material

Franklin and Wilson supplementary material 1

Download Franklin and Wilson supplementary material(File)
File 15.9 KB
Supplementary material: File

Franklin and Wilson supplementary material

Franklin and Wilson supplementary material 2

Download Franklin and Wilson supplementary material(File)
File 10.4 KB