Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-9pm4c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T18:24:29.536Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

African Visual Arts From a Social Perspective

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 May 2014

Paula Ben-Amos
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

The study of African art began in the first decade of this century. In looking back over more than 70 years of research, it is possible to discern a distinctive set of social science concerns, priorities, and modes of analysis. This social perspective depends not so much on disciplinary affiliation as on the kinds of stands taken on the nature of art and on the relative importance of culture as an explanatory principle in understanding its meaning. This paper is concerned with articulating the main models that have been utilized in social research on African art and with tracing their impact on the development of art studies. This historical account will also point out some of the most serious limitations of these models and will suggest studies which may lead to promising new directions.

The focus of this review, then, will be on tracing the development of conceptual models with a social perspective. Studies with a social perspective include those which deal with the relationships among art, society and culture. These relationships can be conceived in a number of different ways, including, as Baxandall (1985: 89) succinctly suggests, “causality or significance or analogy or participation.” Such relationships are always a two-way street: not only do social practices and beliefs illuminate and affect art, but art also illuminates and affects social practice. Two essays will clarify the specific nature of the social perspective. Both classics in the field, both dealing with aesthetics, they are: “Yoruba Artistic Criticism” by Robert Farris Thompson (1973b) and “Principles of Opposition and Vitality in Fang Aesthetics” by James W. Fernandez (1966).

Type
Articles
Information
African Studies Review , Volume 32 , Issue 2 , September 1989 , pp. 1 - 54
Copyright
Copyright © African Studies Association 1989

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abíódún, Rowland. 1975. “Ifa Art Objects: An Interpretation Based on Oral Traditions,” pp. 421–69 in Abimbola, Wande (ed.) Yoruba Oral Tradition: Poetry in Music, Dance and Drama. Ifȩ: Department of African Languages and Literatures, University of Ifè.Google Scholar
Abíódún, Rowland. 1980. “Mythical Allusions in Yoruba Ritualistic Art: Orí-Inú, Visual and Verbal Metaphor.” Paper presented at the Conference on the Relations between the Verbal and Visual Arts in Africa, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Abíódún, Rowland. 1983. “Identity and the Artistic Process in the Yorùbá Aesthetic Concept of Iwà.” Journal of Cultures and Ideas. 1/1: 13–30.Google Scholar
Adams, Marie Jeanne. 1973. “Structural Aspects of a Village Art.” American Anthropologist 75/1: 265–79.Google Scholar
Adams, Marie Jeanne. 1980. “Afterword: Spheres of Men's and Women's Creativity.” Ethnologische Zeitschrift Zürich 1: 163–67.Google Scholar
Adams, Marie Jeanne. 1983. “Where Two Dimensions Meet: The Kuba of Zaire,” pp. 40–55 in Washburn, Dorothy K. (ed.) Structure and Cognition in Art. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Adandé, Alexandre. 1955. “Fonctions et significations sociales des masques en Afrique noire.” Présence Africaine, n.s. 1/1, 2: 24–38.Google Scholar
Adepegba, C.O. 1983. “Ara: The Factor of Creativity in Yoruba Art.” The Nigerian Field 48/1, 4: 53–66.Google Scholar
Almagor, Uri. 1983. “Colours That Match and Clash: An Explication of Meaning in a Pastoral Society,” RES 5: 49–73.Google Scholar
Arens, William and Karp, Ivan. In press. The Creativity of Power. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar
Armstrong, Robert Plant. 1971. The Affecting Presence: An Essay in Humanistic Anthropology. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Arnoldi, Mary Jo. 1980. “Bambara Puppet Theatre: The Relationship between Visual and Verbal Arts in Performance.” Paper presented at the Conference on the Relations between the Verbal and Visual Arts in Africa, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Arnoldi, Mary Jo. 1986. “Puppet Theatre: Form and Ideology in Bamana Performances.” Empirical Studies of the Arts 4/2: 131–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aronson, Lisa. 1980. “Patronage and Akwete Weaving.” African Arts 13/3: 62-6, 91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aronson, Lisa. 1984. “Women in the Arts,” pp. 119–38 in Hay, Margaret Jean and Stichter, Sharon (eds.) African Women South of the Sahara. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Baduel, Céline and Meillassoux, Claude. 1975. “Modes et codes de la coiffure Ouest-Africaine.” L'Ethnographie, n.s. 69: 11–59.Google Scholar
Balandier, Georges. 1966. “Les Conditions sociologiques de I'art noir,” pp. 59–67 in L'Art Nègre. Paris: Présence Africaine.Google Scholar
Barley, Nigel. 1984. “Placing the West African Potter,” in Picton, John (ed.) Earthenware in Asia and Africa. London: Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, University of London.Google Scholar
Bascom, William R. 1962. “African Arts and Social Control.” African Studies Bulletin 5/2: 22–5.Google Scholar
Bascom, William R. 1973. “A Yoruba Master Carver: Duga of Meko,” pp. 62–78 in d'Azevedo, Warren L. (ed.) The Traditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Bascom, William R. 1976. “Changing African Art,” pp. 303–19 in Graburn, Nelson H. H. (ed.) Ethnic and Tourist Arts. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Bascom, William R. and Herskovits, Melville J. (eds.). 1959. Continuity and Change in African Cultures. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Battestini, S.P.X. 1984. “Sémiotique de l'adire.” Semiotica 49/1, 2: 73–93.Google Scholar
Baumann, Hermann. 1969. Afrikanische Plastik und sakrales Königtum: ein sozialer Aspekt traditioneller afrikanisher Kunst. Munich: Verlag des Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenshaften.Google Scholar
Baxandall, Michael. 1972. Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Baxandall, Michael. 1985. “Art, Society, and the Bouguer Principle.” Representations 12: 32–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bay, Edna G. 1985. Asen: Iron Altars of the Fon People of Benin. Atlanta: Emory University Museum of Art and Archaeology.Google Scholar
Beidelman, T.O. 1970. “Some Sociological Implications of Culture,” pp. 499–527 in McKinney, John C. and Tiryakian, Edward A. (eds.) Theoretical Sociology: Perspectives and Developments. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Beidelman, T.O. 1972. “The Kaguru House.” Anthropos 67/5, 6: 690–707.Google Scholar
Beier, Ulli. 1963. Yemi Bisiri, a Yoruba Brass Caster. Ibadan: Mbari Publications.Google Scholar
Ben-Amos, Paula. 1973. “Symbolism in Olokun Mud Art.” African Arts 6/4: 28-31, 95.Google Scholar
Ben-Amos, Paula. 1975. “Professionals and Amateurs in Benin Court Carving,” pp. 170–89 in McCall, Daniel F. and Bay, Edna G. (eds.) African Images: Essays in African Iconology. New York: Africana Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Ben-Amos, Paula. 1976a. “'A la Recherche du Temps Perdu': On Being an Ebony-Carver in Benin,” pp. 320–33 in Graburn, Nelson H.H. (ed.) Ethnic and Tourist Arts. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ben-Amos, Paula. 1976b. “Men and Animals in Benin Art.” Man, n.s. 11/2: 243–52.Google Scholar
Ben-Amos, Paula. 1977. “Pidgin Languages and Tourist Arts.” Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication 4/2: 128–39.Google Scholar
Ben-Amos, Paula. 1978. “Owina N'Ido: Royal Weavers of Benin.” African Arts 11/4: 48-53, 95–6.Google Scholar
Ben-Amos, Paula. 1981. “There Are Three Things in the Palace That Are Threatening: Royal Ritual Symbolism in Benin.” Paper presented at the Seminar on Visual Art as Social Commentary in Africa, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.Google Scholar
Ben-Amos, Paula. 1984. “Royal Art and Ideology in 18th Century Benin.” Iowa Studies in African Art 1: 67–86.Google Scholar
Ben-Amos, Paula. 1986. “Artistic Creativity in [the] Benin Kingdom.” African Arts 19/3: 60-3, 83–4.Google Scholar
Ben-Amos, Paula and Omoregie, Osarenren. 1969. “Ekpo Ritual in Avbiama Village.” African Arts 2/4: 8-13, 79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernatzik, Hugo A. 1932. “Meine Expedition nach Portugiesisch-Guinea.” Atlantis 4: 197–211.Google Scholar
Biebuyck, Daniel P. 1954. “Function of a Lega Mask.” International Archives of Ethnography 47/1: 108–20.Google Scholar
Biebuyck, Daniel P. 1968. “Art as a Didactic Device in African Initiation Systems.” African Forum 3/4, 4/1: 35–43.Google Scholar
Biebuyck, Daniel P. (ed.) 1969. Tradition and Creativity in Tribal Art. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Biebuyck, Daniel P. 1972. “The Kindi Aristocrats and Their Art Among the Lega,” pp. 7–20 in Fraser, Douglas and Cole, Herbert M. (eds.) African Art and Leadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Biebuyck, Daniel P. 1973. Lega Culture: Art, Initiation, and Moral Philosophy Among a Central African People. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Biebuyck, Daniel P. 1976. “The Decline of Lega Sculptural Art,” pp. 334–49 in Graburn, Nelson H.H. (ed.) Ethnic and Tourist Arts. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Biebuyck, Daniel P. 1977. “Symbolism of the Lega Stool.” Working Papers in the Traditional Arts, No. 2. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues.Google Scholar
Biebuyck, Daniel P. 1979. “The Frog and Other Animals in Lega Art and Initiation.” Africa-Tervuren 25/3: 76–84.Google Scholar
Biebuyck, Daniel P. 1982. “Lega Dress as Cultural Artifact.” African Arts 15/3: 59-65, 92.Google Scholar
Biebuyck, Daniel P. 1983. “African Art Studies Since 1957: Achievements and Directions.” African Studies Review 26/3, 4: 99–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blier, Suzanne Preston. 1976. Beauty and the Beast: A Study in Contrasts. New York: Tribal Arts Gallery Two.Google Scholar
Blier, Suzanne Preston. 1981. “The Dance of Death: Notes on the Architecture and Staging of Tamberma Funeral Performances.” RES 2: 107–43.Google Scholar
Blier, Suzanne Preston. 1983. “Houses are Human: Architectural Self-Images of Africa's Tamberma.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 42/4: 371–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boas, Franz. 1927. Primitive Art. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Bohannan, Paul J. 1956. “Beauty and Scarification Amongst the Tiv.” Man 56/129: 117–21.Google Scholar
Bohannan, Paul J. 1961. “Artist and Critic in an African Society,” pp. 85–94 in Smith, Marian W. (ed.) The Artist in Tribal Society. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Boone, Sylvia A. 1986. Radiance From the Waters: Ideals of Feminine Beauty in Mende Art. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Borgatti, Jean M. 1979. From the Hands of Lawrence Ajanaku. Museum of Cultural History Pamphlet Series, Vol. 1, No. 6. Los Angeles: University of California.Google Scholar
Borgatti, Jean M. 1982. “Okpella Masks: In Search of the Parameters of the Beautiful and the Grotesque.” Studies in Visual Communication 8/3: 28–40.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1973. “The Berber House,” pp. 98–110 in Douglas, Mary (ed.) Rules and Meanings. Harmondsworth: Penguin Education.Google Scholar
Bradbury, R.E. 1973. “Ezomo's Ikegobo and the Benin Cult of the Hand,” pp. 251–70 in Bradbury, R.E. (ed.) Benin Studies. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Brain, Robert. 1980. Art and Society in Africa. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Brain, Robert and Pollock, Adam. 1971. Bangwa Funerary Sculpture. London: Duckworth.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, Mary. 1982. “Decoration as Ritual Symbol: A Theoretical Proposal and an Ethnographic Study in Southern Sudan,” pp. 80–8 in Hodder, Ian (ed.) Symbolic and Structural Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bray, Jennifer M. 1969. “The Craft Structure of a Traditional Yoruba Town.” Transactions and Papers of the Institute of British Geographers. 46: 179–93.Google Scholar
Breidenbach, Paul S. 1976. “Colour Symbolism and Ideology in a Ghanaian Healing Movement.” Africa 46/2: 137–45.Google Scholar
Brett-Smith, Sarah C. 1980. “Speech Made Visible: The Irregular as a System of Meaning.” Paper presented at the Conference on the Relations Between the Verbal and Visual Arts in Africa, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Brett-Smith, Sarah C. 1982. “Symbolic Blood: Cloths for Excised Women.” RES 3: 15–31.Google Scholar
Brink, James T. 1981. “Dialectics of Aesthetic Form in Bamana Art.” Paper presented at the Panel on Mande Art and Ideology, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Bunzel, Ruth. 1929. The Pueblo Potter. Reprint. New York: Dover Publications, 1972.Google Scholar
Calame-Griaule, Geneviève. 1951. “Le vêtement dogon, confection et usage.” Journal de la Société des Africanistes 21/2: 151–62.Google Scholar
Campbell, Kenneth F. 1981. “Le lćopard, le serpent et le crocodile.” Arts d'Afrique Noire 38: 16–28.Google Scholar
Carroll, Kevin F. 1961. “Three Generations of Yoruba Carvers.” Ibadan 12: 21–4.Google Scholar
Carroll, Kevin F. 1967. Yoruba Religious Carving. London: Geoffrey Chapman.Google Scholar
Chappel, T.J.H. 1972. “Critical Carvers: A Case Study.” Man, n.s. 7/2: 296–307.Google Scholar
Chappel, T.J.H. 1973. “The Death of a Cult in Northern Nigeria. African Arts 6/4: 70-4, 96.Google Scholar
Chappel, T.J.H. 1977. Decorated Gourds in North-Eastern Nigeria. London: Ethnographica.Google Scholar
Charbonnier, G. (ed.) 1969. Conversations with Claude Lévi-Strauss. London: Cape.Google Scholar
Child, Irvin L. and Siroto, Leon. 1965. “BaKwele and American Esthetic Evaluations Compared.” Ethnology 4/4: 349–60.Google Scholar
Clément, Pierre. 1948. “Le forgeron en Afrique noire: quelques attitudes du groupe a son égard.” La Revue de Géographie Humaine et d'Ethnologie 1/2: 35–58.Google Scholar
Colby, Benjamin N., Fernandez, James W. and Kronenfeld, David B. 1981. “Toward a Convergence of Cognitive and Symbolic Anthropology.” American Ethnologist 8/3: 422–50.Google Scholar
Cole, Herbert M. 1979. “Living Art Among the Samburu,” pp. 87–102 in Cordwell, Justine M. and Schwarz, Ronald A. (eds.) The Fabrics of Culture. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Cole, Herbert M. 1982. Mbari: Art and Life Among the Owerri Igbo. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Cole, Herbert M. 1985. “Introduction: The Mask, Masking, and Masquerade Arts in Africa,” pp. 15–27 in Cole, Herbert M. (ed.) I Am Not Myself: The Art of African Masquerade. Museum of Cultural History Monograph Series, No. 26. Los Angeles: University of California.Google Scholar
Cole, Herbert M. and Aniakor, Chike C. 1984. Igbo Arts: Community and Cosmos. Los Angeles: Museum of Cultural History, University of California.Google Scholar
Cole, Herbert M. and Ross, Doran H. 1977. The Arts of Ghana. Los Angeles: Museum of Cultural History, University of California.Google Scholar
Cordwell, Justine M. 1952. “Some Aesthetic Aspects of Yoruba and Benin Cultures. PhD dissertation, Northwestern University.Google Scholar
Cordwell, Justine M. 1959. “African Art,” pp. 28–48 in Bascom, William R. and Herskovits, Melville J. (eds.) Continuity and Change in African Cultures. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Cory, Hans. 1956. African Figurines: Their Ceremonial Use in Puberty Rites in Tanganyika. London: Faber and Faber.Google Scholar
Crowley, Daniel J. 1958. “Aesthetic Judgement and Cultural Relativism.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 17/2: 187–93.Google Scholar
Crowley, Daniel J. 1966. “An African Aesthetic.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 24/4: 519–24.Google Scholar
Crowley, Daniel J. 1968. “Innovation in African Art: An Ethnological View,” pp. 175–77 in Actes du Cinquième Congrès International d'Esthétique, Amsterdam, 1964. Le Haye: Mouton and Co.Google Scholar
Crowley, Daniel J. 1970. “The Contemporary-Traditional Art Market in Africa.” African Arts 4/1: 43-9, 80.Google Scholar
Crowley, Daniel J. 1972. “Chokwe: Political Art in a Plebian Society,” pp. 21–39 in Fraser, Douglas and Cole, Herbert M. (eds.) African Art and Leadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Crowley, Daniel J. 1973. “Aesthetic Value and Professionalism in African Art: Three Cases From the Katanga Chokwe,” pp. 221–49 in d'Azevedo, Warren L. (ed.) The Traditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Daly, M. Catherine, Eicher, Joanne B. and Erekosima, Tonye V. 1986. “Male and Female Artistry in Kalabari Dress.” African Arts 19/3: 48-51, 83.Google Scholar
Dark, Philip J. 1973. An Introduction to Benin Art and Technology. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Davenport, William. 1973. “The Interpretation of Symbolism in Primitive Art.” Paper presented at the College Art Association Meeting, New York.Google Scholar
Davis-Roberts, Christopher. 1980. “Emblem and Imagery: An Analysis of Tabwa Diviners' Headdresses.” Paper presented at the Conference on the Relations Between the Verbal and Visual Arts in Africa, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
D'Azevedo, Warren L. 1958. “A Structural Approach to Esthetics: Toward a Definition of Art in Anthropology.” American Anthropologist 60/4: 702–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D'Azevedo, Warren L. 1973a. “Mask Makers and Myth in Western Liberia.” pp. 126–50 in Forge, Anthony (ed.) Primitive Art and Society. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
D'Azevedo, Warren L. 1973b. “Sources of Gola Artistry,” pp. 282–340 in d'Azevedo, Warren L. (ed.) The Traditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
D'Azevedo, Warren L. (ed.). 1973c. The Traditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
De Ganay, Solange. 1949a. “Aspects de mythologie et de symbolique bambara.” Journal de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique 42: 181–201.Google Scholar
De Ganay, Solange. 1949b. “On a Form of Cicatrization Among the Bambara.” Man 49/65: 53–5.Google Scholar
De Heusch, Luc. 1956. “Le symbolisme du forgeron en Afrique.” Reflets du monde 10: 57–70.Google Scholar
De Maret, Pierre. 1980. “Ceux qui jouent avec le feu: la place du forgeron en Afrique centrale.” Africa 50/3: 263–79.Google Scholar
DeMott, Barbara. 1982. Dogon Masks: A Structural Study of Form and Meaning. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press.Google Scholar
Dewey, William J. 1986a. “Shona Aesthetics.” Paper presented at the Triennial Symposium on African Art, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Dewey, William J. 1986b. “Shona Male and Female Artistry.” African Arts 19/3: 64-7, 84.Google Scholar
Dickerson, Sara Jane Hollis. 1979. “Benin Artist Idah: Court Art and Personal Style.” Interdisciplinary Studies (SUNO) 2/2.Google Scholar
Dieterlen, Germaine. 1951. Essai sur la religion bambara. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.Google Scholar
Dieterlen, Germaine. 1965–1966. “Contribution à l'étude des forgerons en Afrique occidentale.” Annuaire de l'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. Section des Sciences Religieuses 73: 1–28.Google Scholar
Dieterlen, Germaine. 1968. “A Contribution to the Study of Traditional Architecture in Negro-Africa,” pp. 295–306 in Colloquium on Negro Art. Dakar: Editions Presence Africaine.Google Scholar
Dieterlen, Germaine. 1970. “La serrure et sa clef (Dogon, Mali),” pp. 7–28 in Pouillon, Jean and Maranda, Pierre (eds.) Echanges et communications: mélanges offerts à Claude Lévi-Strauss a l'occasion de son 60 ème anniversaire. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Dilley, Roy. 1986. “Tukulor Weavers and the Organisation of Their Craft in Village and Town.” Africa 56/2: 123–47.Google Scholar
Dittmer, Kunz. 1968. “Medieval Art in the Royal Courts of West Africa,” pp. 67–72 in Colloquium on Negro Art. Dakar: Editions Présence Africaine.Google Scholar
Donner, Etta. 1940. “Kunst und Handwerk in No-Liberia.” Baessler-Archiv 23/2, 3: 45–110.Google Scholar
Douglas, Mary. 1966. Purity and Danger. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Drewal, Henry John. 1977. “Art and the Perception of Women in Yorùbá Culture.” Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines 17/4: 545–67.Google Scholar
Drewal, Henry John. 1980. African Artistry: Technique and Aesthetics in Yoruba Sculpture. Atlanta: High Museum of Art.Google Scholar
Drewal, Henry John. 1984. “Art, History, and the Individual: A New Perspective for the Study of African Visual Traditions.” Iowa Studies in African Art 1: 87–114.Google Scholar
Drewal, Henry John and Drewal, Margaret Thompson. 1983. Gęlędę: Art and Female Power Among the Yoruba. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Drewal, Margaret Thompson. 1977. “Projections from the Top in Yoruba Art.” African Arts 11/1: 43-9, 91–2.Google Scholar
Drewal, Marguret Thompson and Drewal, Henry John. 1980. “Composing Time and Space in Yoruba Art.” Paper presented at the Conference on the Relations Between the Verbal and Visual Arts in Africa, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Durkheim, Emile. 1912. Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse: le systéme totémique en Australie. Paris: Alcan. [Translated, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life: A Study in Religious Sociology. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1915.]Google Scholar
Durkheim, Emile and Mauss, Marcel. 1903. “De quelques formes primitives de classification.” L'Année Sociologique 6: 1–72. [Translated, Primitive Classification. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963. Excerpted, pp. 32–7 in Douglas, Mary (ed.) Rules and Meanings. Harmondsworth: Penguin Education, 1973.]Google Scholar
Elkan, Walter. 1958. “The East African Trade in Woodcarvings.” Africa 28/4: 314–23.Google Scholar
Etienne, Mona. 1980. “Women and Men, Cloth and Colonization: The Transformation of Production-Distribution Relations Among the Baule (Ivory Coast),” pp. 214–38 in Etienne, Mona and Leacock, Eleanor (eds.) Women and Colonization. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Fagg, William. 1963. Nigerian Images. London: Lund Humphries.Google Scholar
Faris, James C. 1972. Nuba Personal Art. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Faris, James C. 1978. “The Productive Basis of Aesthetic Traditions: Some African Examples,” pp. 317–39 in Greenhalgh, Michael and Megaw, Vincent (eds.) Art in Society. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Feeley-Harnik, Gillian. 1980. “The Sakalava House (Madagascar).” Anthropos 75/3, 4: 559–85.Google Scholar
Fernandez, James W. 1966. “Principles of Opposition and Vitality in Fang Aesthetics.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 25/1: 53–64.Google Scholar
Fernandez, James W. 1973. “The Exposition and Imposition of Order: Artistic Expression in Fang Culture,” pp. 194–220 in d'Azevedo, Warren L. (ed.) The Traditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Fernandez, James W. 1977. “Fang Architectonics.” Working Papers in the Traditional Arts, No. 1. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues.Google Scholar
Firth, Raymond. 1951. “The Social Framework of Primitive Art,” pp. 155–82 in Firth, Raymond. Elements of Social Organization. London: Watts.Google Scholar
Fischer, Eberhard. 1976. “Probleme der Kreativität bei Künstlern der Dan,” [Problems of Creativity Among the Dan Artists] Quaderni Poro 1: 9–21. [167-78, English trans.]Google Scholar
Fischer, Eberhard. 1984. “Self-Portraits, Portraits, and Copies Among the Dan: The Creative Process of Traditional African Mask Carvers.” Iowa Studies in African Art 1: 5–28.Google Scholar
Fischer, John L. 1961. “Art Styles as Cultural Cognitive Maps.” American Anthropologist 63/1: 79–93.Google Scholar
Flam, Jack D. 1976. “Graphic Symbolism in the Dogon Granary: Grains, Time, and a Notion of History.” Journal of African Studies 3/1: 35–50.Google Scholar
Forge, Anthony. 1973. “Style and Meaning in Sepik Art,” pp. 169–92 in Forge, Anthony (ed.) Primitive Art and Society. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Forge, Anthony. 1979. “The Problem of Meaning in Art,” pp. 278–86 in Mead, Sidney M. (ed.) Exploring the Visual Art of Oceania. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.Google Scholar
Fouchier, Daniele. 1983. “Le déclin social du forgeron diallonké au Sénégal oriental.” Journal des Africanistes 53/1, 2: 184–96.Google Scholar
Fraser, Douglas. 1972. “The Symbols of Ashanti Kingship,” pp. 137–52 in Fraser, Douglas and Cole, Herbert M. (eds.) African Art and Leadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Fraser, Douglas. 1974. African Art as Philosophy. New York: Interbook.Google Scholar
Fraser, Douglas and Cole, Herbert M. (eds.) 1972. African Art and Leadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Frobenius, Leo. 1912–1919. Und Afrika sprach. Berlin: Vita.Google Scholar
Geary, Christraud M. 1981. “The Idiom of War in the Bamum Court Arts.” African Studies Center Working Papers (Boston), No. 51.Google Scholar
Gerbrands, A.A. 1957. Art as an Element of Culture, Especially in Negro-Africa. Leiden: E.J. Brill.Google Scholar
Girard, Jean. 1967. Dynamique de la société ouobé: loi des masques et coutume. Dakar: IFAN.Google Scholar
Glaze, Anita J. 1975. “Women Power and Art in a Senufo Village.” African Arts 8/3: 24-9, 64-8, 90–1.Google Scholar
Glaze, Anita J. 1981. Art and Death in a Senufo Village. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Glaze, Anita J. 1986. “Dialectics of Gender in Senufo Masquerades.” African Arts 19/3: 30-9, 82.Google Scholar
Gluckman, Max. 1965. Politics, Law and Ritual in Tribal Society. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Goodale, Jane C. and Koss, Joan D. 1967. “The Cultural Context of Creativity Among Tiwi,” pp. 175–91 in Helm, June (ed.) Essays on the Verbal and Visual Arts. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Griaule, Marcel. 1938. Masques dogons. Paris: Institut d'Ethnologie.Google Scholar
Griaule, Marcel. 1940. “Notes complémentaires sur les masques dogons.” Journal de la Société des Africanistes 10: 79–85.Google Scholar
Griaule, Marcel. 1947. Arts de l'Afrique noire. Paris: Editions du Chène.Google Scholar
Griaule, Marcel. 1952. “Réflexions sur les symboles soudanais.” Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie 13/2: 8–30.Google Scholar
Griaule, Marcel. 1966. “Les symboles des arts africains,” pp. 25–33 in L'Art Nègre. Paris: Présence Africaine.Google Scholar
Griaule, Marcel and Dieterlen, Germaine. 1951. “Signes graphiques soudanais.” L'Homme 3: 1–85.Google Scholar
Hagan, G.P. 1970. “A Note on Akan Colour Symbolism.” Research Review (Legon) 7/1: 8–14.Google Scholar
Hallen, Barry. 1979. “The Art Historian as Conceptual Analyst.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 37/3: 303–13.Google Scholar
Hallpike, C.R. 1968. “The Status of Craftsmen Among the Konso of South-West Ethiopia.” Africa 38/3: 258–69.Google Scholar
Hardin, Kris L. 1987. “The Aesthetics of Action: Production and Re-Production in a West African Town.” PhD dissertation, Indiana University.Google Scholar
Harley, George W. 1950. Masks as Agents of Social Control in Northeast Liberia. Cambridge, Mass.: Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Herskovits, Melville J. 1938a. Acculturation: The Study of Culture Contact. New York: J.J. Augustin.Google Scholar
Herskovits, Melville J. 1938b. Dahomey: An Ancient West African Kingdom. New York: J.J. Augustin.Google Scholar
Herskovits, Melville J. 1941. “Symbolism in Dahomean Art.” Man 41/84: 117.Google Scholar
Herskovits, Melville J. 1945. The Backgrounds of African Art. Reprint. New York: Biblo and Tannen, 1967.Google Scholar
Herskovits, Melville J. 1959. “Art and Value,” pp. 41–68 in Redfield, Robert, Herskovits, Melville J., and Ekholm, Gordon F. (eds.) Aspects of Primitive Art. New York: The Museum of Primitive Art.Google Scholar
Herskovits, Melville J. and Bascom, William R. 1959. “The Problem of Stability and Change in African Culture,” pp. 1–14 in Bascom, William R. and Herskovits, Melville J. (eds.) Continuity and Change in African Cultures. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Himmelheber, Hans. 1935. Negerkünstler. Stuttgart: Strecker und Schröder.Google Scholar
Himmelheber, Hans. 1939. “Les masques bayaka et leurs sculpteurs.” Brousse 1: 19–39.Google Scholar
Himmelheber, Hans. 1963. “Personality and Technique of African Sculptors,” pp. 79–110 in Mead, Margaret, Bird, Junius B., and Himmelheber, Hans Technique and Personality in Primitive Art. New York: The Museum of Primitive Art.Google Scholar
Hinckley, Priscilla Baird. 1980. “The Sowo Mask: Symbol of Sisterhood.” African Studies Center Working Papers (Boston), No. 40.Google Scholar
Hodder, Ian R. (ed.) 1982. Symbolic and Structural Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Holas, Bohumil. 1952. Les masques Kono. Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner.Google Scholar
Holy, Ladislav. 1983. “Symbolic and Non-Symbolic Aspects of Berti Space.” Man, n.s. 18/2: 269–88.Google Scholar
Horton, Robin. 1963. “The Kalahari Ekine Society: A Borderland of Religion and Art.” Africa 33/2: 94–114.Google Scholar
Horton, Robin. 1965. Kalabari Sculpture. Lagos: Dept. of Antiquities, Federal Republic of Nigeria.Google Scholar
Houlberg, Marilyn Hammersley. 1973. “Ibeji Images of the Yoruba.” African Arts 7/1: 20-7, 91–2.Google Scholar
Houlberg, Marilyn Hammersley. 1979. “Social Hair: Tradition and Change in Yoruba Hairstyles in Southwestern Nigeria,” pp. 349–97 in Cordwell, Justine M. and Schwarz, Ronald A. (eds.) The Fabrics of Culture. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Imperato, Pascal J. 1971. “Contemporary Adapted Dances of the Dogon.” African Arts 5/1: 28-33, 68-72, 84.Google Scholar
Jacobson-Widding, Anita. 1979. Red-White-Black as a Mode of Thought. Uppsala: Uppsala University.Google Scholar
Janzen, John M. 1977. “The Tradition of Renewal in Kongo Religion,” pp. 69–115 in Booth, Newell S. (ed.) African Religions: A Symposium. New York: Nok Publishers.Google Scholar
Jȩdrej, M.C. 1976. “Structural Aspects of a West African Secret Society.” Journal of Anthropological Research 32/3: 234–15.Google Scholar
Johnson, Barbara C. 1986. Four Dan Sculptors: Continuity and Change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Johnson, Marion. 1979. “Ashanti Craft Organization.” African Arts 13/1: 60-3, 78-82, 97.Google Scholar
Jules-Rosette, Bennetta. 1977. “The Potters and the Painters: Art By and About Women in Urban Africa.” Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication 4/2: 112–27.Google Scholar
Jules-Rosette, Bennetta. 1978. “The Myth of Modernity in Popular African Art: Symbolic Representation in Popular Carving and Painting.” Qualitative Sociology 1/2: 21–61.Google Scholar
Jules-Rosette, Bennetta. 1979. “Technological Innovation in Popular African Art: A Case Study of Some Contemporary Art Forms in Transition.” Journal of Popular Culture 13/1: 116–30.Google Scholar
Jules-Rosette, Bennetta. 1984. The Messages of Tourist Art: An African Semiotic System in Comparative Perspective. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Kaeppler, Adrienne L. 1978. “Melody, Drone, and Decoration: Underlying Structures and Surface Manifestations in Tongan Art and Society,” pp. 261–74 in Greenhalgh, Michael and Megaw, Vincent (eds.) Art in Society. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Karp, Ivan and Maynard, Kent. 1983. “Reading The Nuer .” Current Anthropology 24/4: 481–503.Google Scholar
Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield. 1980. “Patronage and Maconde Carvers.” African Arts 13/3: 67-70, 91–2.Google Scholar
Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield. 1984. “One Tribe, One Style: Paradigms in the Historiography of African Art.” History in Africa 11: 163–93.Google Scholar
Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield. 1985. “Apprentices and Entrepreneurs: The Workshop and Style Uniformity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Paper presented at the Symposium on the Artist and the Workshop in Traditional Africa, University of Iowa.Google Scholar
Kazadi, Ntole. 1980. “Scarification et langage dans la culture des Bahemba.” Paper presented at the Conference on the Relations Between the Verbal and Visual Arts in Africa, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Klobe, Marguerite. 1977. “A Dogon Figure of a Koro Player.” African Arts 10/4: 32-5, 87.Google Scholar
Klumpp, Donna Rey. 1980. “Maasai Beadwork: Esthetic and Social Ideals in Color Code.” Paper presented at the 23rd annual meeting of the African Studies Association, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Komma, T. 1981. “The Dwelling and Its Symbolism Among the Kipsigis,” pp. 91–123 in Nagashima, Nobuhiro (ed.) Themes in Socio-Cultural Ideas and Behavior Among the Six Ethnic Groups of Kenya. Tokyo: Hitotsubashi University.Google Scholar
Kuper, Adam. 1980. “Symbolic Dimensions of the Southern Bantu Homestead.” Africa 50/1: 8–23.Google Scholar
Lagopoulos, Alexander-Phaedon. 1975. “Semiological Urbanism: An Analysis of the Traditional Western Sudanese Settlement,” pp. 206–18 in Oliver, Paul (ed.) Shelter, Sign and Symbol. London: Barrie and Jenkins.Google Scholar
Lamp, Frederick. 1985. “Cosmos, Cosmetics and the Spirit of Bondo,” African Arts 18/3: 28-43, 98–9.Google Scholar
Laude, Jean. 1973. African Art of the Dogon: The Myths of the Cliff Dwellers. New York: Viking Press.Google Scholar
Lawal, Babatunde. 1974. “Some Aspects of Yoruba Aesthetics.” British Journal of Aesthetics 14/3: 239–49.Google Scholar
Lawal, Babatunde. 1977. “The Living Dead: Art and Immortality Among the Yoruba of Nigeria.” Africa 47/1: 50–61.Google Scholar
Lawal, Babatunde. 1985. “Orí: The Significance of the Head in Yoruba Sculpture.” Journal of Anthropological Research 41/1: 91–103.Google Scholar
Layton, Robert. 1981. The Anthropology of Art. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Lebeuf, Annie and Lebeuf, Jean-Paul. 1955. “Monuments symboliques de Palais Royal de Logone-Birni (Nord-Cameroun).” Journal de la Société des Africanistes 25/1, 2: 25–34.Google Scholar
Lebeuf, Jean-Paul. 1961. L'habitation des Fali, montagnards du Cameroun septentrional. Paris: Hachette.Google Scholar
Lebeuf, Jean-Paul. 1968. 'Traditional African Architecture,” pp. 307–16 in Colloquium on Negro Art. Dakar: Editions Présence Africaine.Google Scholar
Leiris, Michel and Delange, Jacqueline. 1968. African Art. London: Thames and Hudson.Google Scholar
Le Moal, Guy. 1980. Les Bobo: nature et fonction des masques. Paris: ORSTOM.Google Scholar
Lewis, Ioan. 1971. Ecstatic Religion. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Lincoln, Bruce. 1975. “The Religious Significance of Women's Scarification Among the Tiv.” Africa 45/3: 316–26.Google Scholar
Littlejohn, J. 1960. “The Temne House.” Sierra Leone Studies 14: 63–79.Google Scholar
Littlejohn, J. 1963. “Temne Space.” Anthropological Quarterly 36: 1–17.Google Scholar
Lloyd, Peter. 1953. “Craft Organization in Yoruba Towns.” Africa 23/1: 30–44.Google Scholar
Lydall, Jean. 1978. “Le symbolisme des couleurs dans le rituel Hamar (Ethiope),” pp. 553–75 in Tornay, Serge (ed.) Voir et nommer les couleurs. Nanterre: Laboratoire d'Ethnologie et de Sociologie Comparative.Google Scholar
MacCormack, Carol P. 1980a. “Art and Symbolism in Thoma Ritual Among the Sherbro, Sierra Leone.” Ethnologische Zeitschrift Zürich 1: 151–61.Google Scholar
MacCormack, Carol P. 1980. “Proto-Social to Adult: A Sherbro Transformation,” pp. 95–118 in MacCormack, Carol P. and Strathem, Marilyn (eds.) Nature, Culture, and Gender. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mack, John. 1980. “Bakuba Embroidery Patterns: A Commentary on Their Social and Political Implications,” pp. 163–74 in Idiens, Dale and Ponting, Kenneth G. (eds.) Textiles of Africa. Bath: Pasold Research Fund.Google Scholar
Mack, John. 1981. “Animal Representations in Kuba Art: An Anthropological Interpretation of Sculpture.” The Oxford Art Journal 4/2: 50–6.Google Scholar
Maesen, Albert E. 1960. “Le sculpteur dans la vie sociale chez les Sénoufo de la Côte d'Ivoire.” Third International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, Brussels, 1948: Compterendu, Tervuren, pp. 138–39.Google Scholar
Makarius, Laura. 1968. “The Blacksmith's Taboos: From the Man of Iron to the Man of Blood.” Diogenes 62: 25–48.Google Scholar
Maquet, Jacques. 1971. Introduction to Aesthetic Anthropology. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Maquet, Jacques. 1986. The Aesthetic Experience: An Anthropolgist Looks at the Visual Arts. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Maurer, Evan M. and Roberts, Allen F. 1985. Tabwa: The Rising of a New Moon: A Century of Tabwa Art. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Museum of Art.Google Scholar
Mauss, Marcel. 1954. The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies. London: Coehn and West.Google Scholar
McLeod, Malcolm D. 1976. “Verbal Elements in West African Art.” Quaderni Poro 1: 85–102.Google Scholar
McLeod, Malcolm D. 1978. “Aspects of Asante Images,” pp. 305–16 in Greenhalgh, Michael and Megaw, Vincent (eds.) Art in Society. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
McNaughton, Patrick R. 1979a. “Bamana Blacksmiths.” African Arts 12/2: 65-71, 92.Google Scholar
McNaughton, Patrick R. 1979b. “Secret Sculptures of Komo: Art and Power in Bamana (Bambara) Initiation Associations.” Working Papers in the Traditional Arts, No. 4. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues.Google Scholar
McNaughton, Patrick R. 1982. “The Shirts That Mande Hunters Wear.” African Arts 15/3: 54-8, 91.Google Scholar
Merriam, Alan P. 1964. The Anthropology of Music. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar
Merriam, Alan P. 1974. “Change in Religion and the Arts in a Zairian Village.” African Arts 7/4: 46-53, 95.Google Scholar
Mesquitela, Lima A.G. 1978. “L'Artiste en Afrique noire: quelques remarques sur le statut de l'artiste en Afrique Bantoue traditionnelle.” Arts d'Afrique Noire 25: 14–20.Google Scholar
Messenger, John C. 1958. “Reflections on Esthetic Talent.” Basic College Quarterly 4/1: 20–4.Google Scholar
Messenger, John C. 1962. “Anang Art, Drama, and Social Control.” African Studies Bulletin 5/2: 29–35.Google Scholar
Messenger, John C. 1973. “The Carver in Anang Society,” pp. 101–27 in d'Azevedo, Warren L. (ed.) The Traditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Meyerowitz, Eva. 1951. The Sacred State of the Akan. London: Faber and Faber.Google Scholar
Mills, George. 1957. “Art: An Introduction to Qualitative Anthropology.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 16/1: 1–17.Google Scholar
Morris, Brian. 1987. Anthropological Studies of Religion: An Introductory Text. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mudimbe, V.Y. 1986. “African Art as a Question Mark.” African Studies Review 29/1: 3–4.Google Scholar
Munn, Nancy D. 1973. “Symbolism in a Ritual Context: Aspects of Symbolic Action,” pp. 579–612 in Honigmann, John J. (ed.) Handbook of Social and Cultural Anthropology. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co.Google Scholar
Mveng, Engelbert. 1968. “The Function and Significance of Negro Art in the Life of the Peoples of Black Africa,” pp. 11–27 in Colloquium on Negro Art. Dakar: Editions Présence Africaine.Google Scholar
N'Diaye, Francine. 1971. “Iconologie des poulies de métier à tisser dogon.” Objets et Mondes 11/4: 355–70.Google Scholar
N'Diaye, Francine. 1972. “Contribution a l'étude de l'architecture du pays dogon.” Objects et Mondes 12/3: 269–86.Google Scholar
Neaher, Nancy C. 1976. “Igbo Metalsmiths Among the Southern Edo.” African Arts 9/4: 46-9, 91–2.Google Scholar
Neaher, Nancy C. 1979. “Awka Who Travel: Itinerant Metalsmiths of Southern Nigeria.” Africa 49/4: 352–66.Google Scholar
Nesmith, Fisher H. 1979. “Dogon Bronzes.” African Arts 12/2: 20-6, 90.Google Scholar
Nunley, John W. 1979. “Ntowie: Sisala Carver.” African Arts 13/1: 68-73, 98.Google Scholar
O'Hear, Ann. 1986. “Pottery Making in Ilorin: A Study of the Decorated Water Cooler.” Africa 56/2: 175–92.Google Scholar
Ojo, J.R.O. 1978. “The Symbolism and Significance of Epa-Type Masquerade Headpieces.” Man, n.s. 13/3: 455–70.Google Scholar
Olbrechts, Frans M. 1933. “Notre mission ethnographique en Afrique occidentale francaise.” Bulletin des Musées Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire (Brussels) 5: 98–107.Google Scholar
Osborne, Harold. 1970. Aesthetics and Art Theory: An Historical Introduction. New York: E.P. Dutton.Google Scholar
Ottenberg, Simon. 1971. Anthropology and African Aesthetics. Accra: Ghana Universities Press.Google Scholar
Ottenberg, Simon. 1972. “Humorous Masks and Serious Politics Among the Afikpo Ibo,” pp. 99–121 in Fraser, Douglas and Cole, Herbert M. (eds.) African Art and Leadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Ottenberg, Simon. 1975. Masked Rituals of Afikpo: The Context of an African Art. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Ottenberg, Simon. 1980. “Design and Song in a Limba Chiefdom.” Paper presented at the Conference on the Relations Between the Verbal and Visual Arts in Africa, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Ottenberg, Simon. 1982. “Illusion, Communication, and Psychology in West African Masquerades.” Ethos 10/2: 149–85.Google Scholar
Ottenberg, Simon. 1983. “Artistic and Sex Roles in a Limba Chiefdom,” pp. 76–90 in Oppong, Christine (ed.) Female and Male in West Africa. London: George Allen and Unwin.Google Scholar
Ottenberg, Simon. 1984. “Culture, Art and Peasantry in Africa.” Peasant Studies 12/1: 5–18.Google Scholar
Parkin, David J. 1982. Speaking of Art: A Giriama Impression. Bloomington: African Studies Pro-gram, Indiana University.Google Scholar
Paulme, Denise. 1973. “Adornment and Nudity in Tropical Africa,” pp. 11–24 in Forge, Anthony (ed.) Primitive Art and Society. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Paulme, Denise and Brosse, Jacques. 1956. Parures Africaines. Paris: Hachette.Google Scholar
Peek, Philip M. 1980. “Isoko Artists and Their Audiences.” African Arts 13/3: 58-61, 91.Google Scholar
Peek, Philip M. 1985. “Ovia Idah and Eture Egbede: Traditional Nigerian Artists.” African Arts 18/2: 54-9, 102.Google Scholar
Peek, Philip M. 1986. “The Isoko Ethos of Ivri.” African Arts 20/1: 42–7.Google Scholar
Pemberton, John. 1975. “Eshu-Elegba: The Yoruba Trickster God.” African Arts 9/1: 20-7, 66-70, 90–2.Google Scholar
Pemberton, John. 1977. “A Cluster of Sacred Symbols: Orisa Worship Among the Igbomina Yoruba of Ila-Orangun.” History of Religions 17/1: 1–28.Google Scholar
Pemberton, John. 1978. “Egungun Masquerades of the Igbomina Yoruba.” African Arts 11/3: 40-7, 99–100.Google Scholar
Perani, Judith. 1980. “Patronage and Nupe Craft Industries.” African Arts 13/3: 71-5, 92.Google Scholar
Pemberton, John. 1986. “Hausa Calabash Decoration.” African Arts 19/3: 45-7, 82–3.Google Scholar
Picton, John. 1986. “The Art Historian as Ventriloquist; or Do Images Really Talk?” Paper presented at the 29th Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association, Madison.Google Scholar
Poyner, Robin. 1975. “The Social Significance of Traditional Textiles in Owo, Nigeria.” Paper presented at the 18th Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Prussin, Labelle. 1976. “Fulani-Hausa Architecture.” African Arts 10/1: 8-19, 97–8.Google Scholar
Prussin, Labelle. 1980. “Traditional Asante Architecture.” African Arts 13/2: 57-65, 78-82, 85–7.Google Scholar
Prussin, Labelle. 1981. “The Shape of Space in African Architecture,” pp. 130–48 in Ray, Donald, Shinnie, Peter and Williams, Donovan (eds.) Into the 80's: The Proceedings of the 11th Annual Conference of the Canadian Association of African Studies. Vol. 1. Vancouver: Tantalus Research.Google Scholar
Rattray, R.S. 1927. Religion and Art in Ashanti. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ravenhill, Philip L. 1980. “Baule Statuary Art: Meaning and Modernization.” Working Papers in the Traditional Arts, No. 5. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues.Google Scholar
Reinhardt, Loretta R. 1975. “Mende Carvers.” PhD dissertation, Southern Illinois University.Google Scholar
Richards, Dona. 1981. “The Nyama of the Blacksmith: The Metaphysical Significance of Metallurgy in Africa.” Journal of Black Studies 12/2: 218–38.Google Scholar
Richards, J.V. Olufemi. 1977. “Santigie Sesay: Sierra Leone Carver.” African Arts 11/1: 65-9, 92.Google Scholar
Richardson, John Adkins. 1977. “Speculations on Dogon Iconography.” African Arts 11/1: 52-7, 92.Google Scholar
Richter, Dolores. 1978. “The Tourist Art Market as a Factor in Social Change.” Annals of Tourism Research 5/3: 323–38.Google Scholar
Richter, Dolores. 1980. Art, Economics, and Change: The Kulebele of Northern Ivory Coast. La Jolla, California: Psych/Graphic Publishers.Google Scholar
Rubin, Arnold. 1974. African Accumulative Sculpture: Power and Display. New York. Pace Editions.Google Scholar
Rudy, Suzanne. 1972. “Royal Sculpture in the Cameroons Grasslands,” pp. 123–35 in Fraser, Douglas and Cole, Herbert M. (eds.) African Art and Leadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Schneider, Harold K. 1956. “The Interpretation of Pakot Visual Art.” Man 56/108: 103–6.Google Scholar
Schneider, Harold K. 1966. “Turu Esthetic Concepts.” American Anthropologist 68/1: 156–60.Google Scholar
Schwarz, Arturo. 1980. “Le forgeron céleste.” Arts d'Afrique Noire 33: 8–28.Google Scholar
Schweeger-Hefel, Annemarie. 1976. “Mask and Myth Among the Nyonyosi of Upper Volta.” QuaderniPoro 1: 155–65.Google Scholar
Schwimmer, Erik. 1979. “Aesthetics of the Aika,” pp. 287–92 in Mead, Sidney M. (ed.) Exploring the Visual Arts of Oceania. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.Google Scholar
Shostak, Marjorie. 1982. Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman. London: Allen Lane.Google Scholar
Sieber, Roy. 1959. “The Aesthetics of Traditional African Art,” in Rainey, Froelich G. (ed.) Seven Metals of Africa. Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Sieber, Roy. 1962a. “The Arts and Their Changing Social Function.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 96/2: 653–58.Google Scholar
Sieber, Roy. 1962b. “Masks as Agents of Social Control.” African Studies Bulletin 5/2: 8–13.Google Scholar
Sieber, Roy. 1969. “Comments,” pp. 192–203 in Biebuyck, Daniel P. (ed.) Tradition and Creativity in Tribal Art. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Siegmann, William C. 1980. “Spirit Manifestation and the Poro Society.” Ethnologische Zeitschrift Zürich 1: 89–95.Google Scholar
Silver, Harry R. 1979. “Beauty and the T of the Beholder: Identity, Aesthetics, and Social Change Among the Ashanti.” Journal of Anthropological Research 35/2: 191–207.Google Scholar
Silver, Harry R. 1980. “The Culture of Carving and the Carving of Culture: Content and Context in Artisan Status Among the Ashanti.” American Ethnologist 7/3: 432–46.Google Scholar
Silver, Harry R. 1981a. “Calculating Risks: The Socioeconomic Foundations of Aesthetic Innovation in an Ashanti Carving Community.” Ethnology 20/2: 101–14.Google Scholar
Silver, Harry R. 1981b. “Carving Up the Profits: Apprenticeship and Structural Flexibility in a Contemporary African Craft Market.” American Ethnologist 8/1: 41–52.Google Scholar
Silver, Harry R. 1983. “Foreign Art and Asante Aesthetics.” African Arts 16/3: 64-7, 79–80.Google Scholar
Siroto, Leon. 1972. “Gon: A Mask Used in Competition for Leadership Among the Bakwele,” pp. 57–77 in Fraser, Douglas and Cole, Herbert M. (eds.) African Art and Leadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Siroto, Leon. 1979. “Witchcraft Belief in the Explanation of Traditional African Iconography,” pp. 241–91 in Cordwell, Justine M. (ed.) The Visual Arts. The Hague: Mouton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Fred T. 1986a. “Compound Entryway Decoration: Male Space and Female Creativity.” African Arts 19/3: 52-9, 83.Google Scholar
Smith, Fred T. 1986b. “Male and Female Artistry in Africa.” African Arts 19/3: 28-9, 82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, J. Weldon. 1978. “African Pragmatism.” African Arts 11/2: 71-5, 96.Google Scholar
Swiderski, Stanislaw. 1979. “Tradition et nouveauté des concepts religieux dans l'art sacré contemporain au Gabon.” Anthropos 74/5, 6: 803–16.Google Scholar
Szombati-Fabian, Ilona and Fabian, Johannes. 1976. “Art, History, and Society: Popular Painting in Shaba, Zaire.” Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication 3/1: 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teilhet, Jehanne H. 1978. “The Equivocal Role of Women Artists in Non-Literate Cultures.” Heresies 4: 96–102.Google Scholar
Tessman, Günter. 1913. Die Pangwe: völkerkundliche monographie eines West-Afrikanische Negerstammes. Berlin: E. Wasmuth, A.G.Google Scholar
Thompson, Robert Farris. 1968. “Esthetics in Traditional Africa.” Art News 66/9: 44-5, 63–6.Google Scholar
Thompson, Robert Farris. 1969. “Àbátàn: A Master Potter of the Ègbádò Yorùbá,” pp. 120–82 in Biebuyck, Daniel P. (ed.) Tradition and Creativity in Tribal Art. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Thompson, Robert Farris. 1971. Black Gods and Kings: Yoruba Art at UCLA. Los Angeles: Museum and Laboratories of Ethnic Arts and Technology, University of California.Google Scholar
Thompson, Robert Farris. 1973a. “An Aesthetic of the Cool.” African Arts 7/1: 40–6.Google Scholar
Thompson, Robert Farris. 1973b. “Yoruba Artistic Criticism,” pp. 19–61 in d'Azevedo, Warren L. (ed.) The Traditional Artist in African Socieites. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Tonkin, Elizabeth. 1979. “Masks and Powers.” Man, n.s. 14/2: 237–48.Google Scholar
Tonkin, Elizabeth. 1983. “Women Excluded? Masking and Masquerading in West Africa,” pp. 163–74 in Holden, Pat (ed.) Women's Religious Experience. London: Croom Helm.Google Scholar
Torday, Emil and Joyce, T.A. 1911. Notes ethnographiques sur les peuples communément appelés Bakuba, ainsi que sur les peuplades apparentées, Les Bushongo. Brussels: Librairie Falk.Google Scholar
Trowell, Kathleen Margaret. 1954. Classical African Sculpture. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Turner, Victor. 1967. The Forest of Symbols. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Twala, Regina G. 1951. “Beads as Regulating the Social Life of the Zulu and Swazi.” African Studies 10:113–23.Google Scholar
Urciuoli, Bonnie. 1985. “Bilingualism as Code and Bilingualism as Practice.” Anthropological Linguistics 27/4: 363–86.Google Scholar
Vandenhoute, P.J.L. 1945. “Het Masker in de Cultuur en Kunst van het Boven-Cavally-Gebeid.” Master's thesis, University of Ghent.Google Scholar
Van Geertruyen, Godelieve. 1976. “La fonction de la sculpture dans une société africaine: les Baga, Nalu et Landuman (Guinée).” Africana Gandensia 1: 63–113.Google Scholar
Vansina, Jan. 1968. “Kuba Art and Its Cultural Context.” African Forum 3/4, 4/1: 12–27.Google Scholar
Vansina, Jan. 1972. “Ndop: Royal Statues Among the Kuba,” pp. 41–55 in Fraser, Douglas and Cole, Her-bert M. (eds.) African Art and Leadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Vansina, Jan. 1984. Art History in Africa. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Van Wing, Jozef. 1921. Etudes Bakongo: historie et sociologie. Brussels: Goemaere.Google Scholar
Vansina, Jan. 1938. Etudes Bakongo: religion et magie. Brussels: G. van Campenhout.Google Scholar
Vaughan, James H. 1973. “Enkyagu as Artists in Marghi Society,” pp. 162–93 in d'Azevedo, Warren L. (ed.) The Traditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Vecsey, Christopher. 1983. “Facing Death, Masking Death, in Luba Myth and Art.” Journal of Religion in Africa 14/1: 24–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vogel, Susan Mullin. 1979. “Baule and Yoruba Art Criticism: A Comparison,” pp. 309–25 in Cordwell, Justine M. (ed.) The Visual Arts. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Vogel, Susan Mullin. 1980. “Beauty in the Eyes of the Baule: Aesthetics and Cultural Values.” Working Papers in the Traditional Arts, No. 6. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues.Google Scholar
Von Sydow, Eckart. 1938. “Ancient and Modern Art in Benin City.” Africa 11/1: 55–62.Google Scholar
Warren, Dennis M. and Andrews, J. Kweku. 1977. “An Ethnoscientific Approach to Akan Arts and Aesthetics.” Working Papers in the Traditional Arts, No. 3. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues.Google Scholar
Weil, Peter M. 1971. “The Masked Figure and Social Control: The Mandinka Case.” Africa 41/4: 279–93.Google Scholar
Wescott, Joan. 1962. “The Sculpture and Myths of Eshu-Elegba, the Yoruba Trickster: Definition and Interpretation in Yoruba Iconography.” Africa 32/4: 336–54.Google Scholar
Wescott, Joan. 1963. “Tradition and the Yoruba Artist.” Athene (Bedford) 2/1: 9–16.Google Scholar
Wescott, Joan and Morton-Williams, Peter. 1962. “The Symbolism and Ritual Context of the Yoruba Laba Shango.” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ire-land 92/1: 23–37.Google Scholar
Witte, Hans. 1982. “Fishes of the Earth: Mud-Fish Symbolism in Yoruba Iconography.” Visible Religion 1: 154–74.Google Scholar
Witte, Hans. 1984. If a and Ẹsu: Iconography of Order and Disorder. Soest-Holland: Kunsthandel Luttik.Google Scholar
Wolfe, Alvin W. 1969. “Social Structural Bases of Art.” Current Anthropology 10/1: 3–44.Google Scholar
Wolff, Norma H. 1986. “A Hausa Aluminum Spoon Industry.” African Arts 19/3: 40-4, 82.Google Scholar
Zahan, Dominique. 1951. “Les couleurs chez les Bambara du Soudan français.” Notes Africaines 50: 52–56.Google Scholar
Zahan, Dominique. 1974. The Bambara. Leiden: E.J. Brill.Google Scholar
Zahan, Dominique. 1980. Antilopes du soleil: arts et rites agraires d'Afrique noire. Vienna: A. Schendl.Google Scholar
Zahan, Dominique. 1984. “Ornament and Color in Black Africa.” pp. 20–4 in Brincard, Marie-Thérèse (ed.) Beauty by Design. New York: The African-American Institute.Google Scholar