In Xian in 1994, I conducted a workshop on legislative drafting with more than a hundred women from various levels of women’s federations, known as “fulians.” To ground the discussion, we brainstormed a list of top problems facing women in their communities. Most participants reported that violence against women and domestic violence were leading concerns. But when we turned to examine draft legislation aimed at providing greater protections for women, the group also quickly identified the shortcomings of these draft laws: they lacked clear definitions, lack of specificity about implementation mechanisms and remedies, and no provisions for financing needed solutions. In a followup exercise that identified common Chinese expression or sayings about women, it became painfully clear that negative images and gender stereotypes are embedded in the language, reinforcing cultural biases.

Although China has signed and ratified dozens of international human rights treaties and passed many domestic laws to protect women, the realization of rights for hundreds of millions of women and girls remains an ongoing challenge that has domestic and international dimensions. In the fall of 1995, the United Nations convened the Fourth World Conference on Women. A parallel NGO event, Forum 95, was held along the same themes—equality, development, and peace—and attracted over 30,000 people. Slogans emerging from the conference included the now well-known “Women’s rights are human rights,” but also the Chinese slogan, “Connect the rails,” calling for connecting (jiegui, to merge) with international women’s movements, and promoting more women’s activism in China. Anticipated or not, hosting a prominent international event such as the 1995 Women’s Conference had positive spillover benefits for Chinese women and domestic women’s groups. Through support and funding for numerous publications and new women’s centers and programs, greater domestic awareness of women’s issues and problems, as well as the role of NGOs in other countries, was advanced at different levels of government and among ordinary Chinese, the laobaixing.

Nearly two decades have passed since the 1995Women’s Conference and the adoption of the Beijing Declaration and the Platform of Action that called on all governments to take action on areas including education, health care, violence against women, media stereotypes, and the rights of girls.