There are two basic assumptions of contemporary liberal and democratic political thinking. First, laws (not men) rule in a liberal or constitutional state. Second, many (not few) rule in a democracy. Both are simplifications that easily confuse hopes with reality. They may be correct in capturing the wishes and intentions of many liberal-democratic reformers. However, they also ignore the requirements of large-scale, complex and organised societies, and turn a blind eye to the actual paths of political modernisation and mass democratisation. Most critically, they neglect the indirect-representative character of modern democratic regimes, the key role of political leaders, and those leaders' charismatic (Weber) and innovative (Schumpeter) potential.

This does not mean that direct, participatory and grassroots democracy is impossible or unrealistic and that rational legalism and public responsibility are illusory. Participatory forms of ruling are applicable to small, simple and homogeneous social settings, and they fail in complex large-scale nationstates. Such nation-states inevitably develop indirect forms of democratic representation; they are highly organised and shaped by parties, professional politicians, elective leaders and elites.