Kant died, worn out, in 1802. It is fortunate that he never lived to see what happened just four years later. The French Revolution, which in its beginnings had contained what Kant could recognize as a rational impulse towards freedom and goodness (Kant, The Conflict of the Faculties, AA VII, 85–7), had grown steadily more chaotic and violent until it was finally taken over by a young Corsican, Napoleon Bonaparte. Bonaparte, however, was riding a tiger. By 1806 the revolutionary impulse had coalesced into a mighty army, spreading the name of freedom – but the reality of conquest – to the east, which meant to Germany.

Germany was disunited and, in general, politically repressive; hereditary nobles squabbled with each other and controlled far too much of their subjects' lives. But to be taken over and forcibly “enlightened” by foreigners was not what the Germans wanted, and they fought back. The decisive battle came at Jena, in east central Germany, on 14 October 1806. It was a complete rout for the Germans, who suffered enormous casualties. Within six weeks, Napoleon would complete his conquest of Prussia.

The day before the battle, as the troops massed, Napoleon led part of his army through the city of Jena, sitting proudly on his great white horse. The fearful Germans stood silent in the streets to watch him as he rode by.