Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-m9kch Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-10T03:33:06.175Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

2 - Epidemiology of disaster mental health

from Part II - Foundations of disaster psychiatry

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 August 2009

By
Carol S. North
Edited by
Robert J. Ursano ,
Carol S. Fullerton ,
Lars Weisaeth  and
Beverley Raphael
Carol S. North
Affiliation:
Professor of Psychiatry UT Southwestern Medical Center Department of Psychiatry USA
Robert J. Ursano
Affiliation:
Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Maryland
Carol S. Fullerton
Affiliation:
Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Maryland
Lars Weisaeth
Affiliation:
Universitetet i Oslo
Beverley Raphael
Affiliation:
University of Western Sydney
Get access

Summary

Introduction

Psychiatric epidemiology provides a broad foundation for general understanding of the mental health effects of extreme trauma and secondarily helps to inform the field of mental health response to less extreme stress. Disaster mental health has considerable relevance in today's world, with disasters and terrorism increasingly occupying concerns of communities internationally.

The study of the mental health effects of traumatic events suffers from inherent methodological limitations. Studies of personal traumatic events endemic to community settings (such as motor vehicle accidents, gunshot wounds, and violent assault) suffer from confounding resulting from the nonrandom nature of their occurrence.

Pre-existing characteristics of individuals may be associated with risk for exposure to traumatic events (Breslau et al., 1998), such as drug abuse, other psychopathology, high novelty-seeking and low harm-avoidance characteristics of personality, and low socioeconomic status (Breslau et al., 1991). Risk for exposure to traumatic events in community settings is thus confounded with the mental health consequences of them. Studies of trauma in community settings may therefore be unable to determine what part of post-trauma effects is due to the traumatic experience, and what is pre-existing in individuals predisposed to such exposure. Because pre-existing characteristics of individuals exposed to trauma in individual incidents in communities determine their status after the event, findings from studies of other kinds of traumatic events may not apply to populations affected by disasters.

Keywords

community supportdisaster typologyepidemiologic researchmental health effectsPTSDpsychiatric illnesspostdisaster settings
Type
Chapter
Information
Textbook of Disaster Psychiatry , pp. 29 - 47
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abdo, T., al-Dorzi, H., Itani, A. R., Jabr, F. & Zaghloul, N. (1997). Earthquakes: health outcomes and implications in Lebanon. The Lebanese Medical Journal, 45, 197–200.Google Scholar
Ahern, J., Galea, S., Resnick, H.et al. (2002). Television images and psychological symptoms after the September 11 terrorist attacks. Psychiatry, 65, 289–300.Google Scholar
Alexander, D. A. & Klein, S. (2003). Biochemical terrorism: too awful to contemplate, too serious to ignore: subjective literature review. British Journal of Psychiatry, 183, 491–497.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association Press.
,Anonymous. (2002). Impact of September 11 attacks on workers in the vicinity of the World Trade Center – New York City. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51 Spec No, 8–10.Google Scholar
Anthony, J. C. & Helzer, J. E. (1991). Syndromes of drug abuse and dependence. In Psychiatric Disorders in America: The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study, eds. Robins, L. N. & Regier, D. A., pp. 116–154. New York: The Free Press.
Arata, C. M., Picou, J. S., Johnson, G. D. & McNally, T. S. (2000). Coping with technological disaster: an application of the conservation of resources model to the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 23–39.Google Scholar
Associated Press (2001). Poll: Americans depressed, sleepless. Available at http://www.chron.com/cs/CDA/story.hts/special/terror/impact/1055126. Accessed April 3, 2007.
Baker, D. R. (2002). A public health approach to the needs of children affected by terrorism. Journal of the American Medical Women's Association, 57, 117–118, 123.Google Scholar
Bartholomew, R. E. & Wessely, S. (2002). Protean nature of mass sociogenic illness: from possessed nuns to chemical and biological terrorism fears. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 300–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baum, A., Fleming, R. & Davidson, L. M. (1983). Natural disaster and technological catastrophe. Environment and Behavior, 15, 333–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beigel, A. & Berren, M. (1985). Human-induced disasters. Psychiatric Annals, 15, 143–150.Google Scholar
Blanchard, E. B., Rowell, D., Kuhn, E., Rogers, R. & Wittrock, D. (2005). Posttraumatic stress and depressive symptoms in a college population one year after the September 11 attacks: the effect of proximity. Behavior Research and Therapy, 43, 143–150.Google Scholar
Bland, R. C. (1998). Psychiatry and the burden of mental illness. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 43, 801–810.Google Scholar
Bland, S. H., O'Leary, E. S., Farinaro, E.et al. (1997). Social network disturbances and psychological distress following earthquake evacuation. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 185, 188–195.Google Scholar
Blazer, D. G., Hughes, D., George, L. K., Swartz, M. & Boyer, R. (1991). Generalized anxiety disorder. In Psychiatric Disorders in America: The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study, eds. Robins, L. N. & Regier, D. A., pp. 180–203. New York: The Free Press.
Bowler, R. M., Mergler, D., Huel, G. & Cone, J. E. (1994a). Aftermath of a chemical spill: psychological and physiological sequelae. Neurotoxicology, 15, 723–729.Google Scholar
Bowler, R. M., Mergler, D., Huel, G. & Cone, J. E. (1994b). Psychological, psychosocial, and psychophysiological sequelae in a community affected by a railroad chemical disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7, 601–624.Google Scholar
Boxer, P. A. & Wild, D. (1993). Psychological distress and alcohol use among fire fighters. Scandinavian Journal of Work and Environmental Health, 19, 121–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brady, K. T. & Randall, C. L. (1999). Gender differences in substance use disorders. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 22, 241–252.Google Scholar
Bravo, M., Rubio-Stipec, M., Canino, G. J., Woodbury, M. A. & Ribera, J. C. (1990). The psychological sequelae of disaster stress prospectively and retrospectively evaluated. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 661–680.Google Scholar
Breslau, N. (1998). Epidemiology of trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder. In Psychological Trauma, ed. Yehuda, R., pp. 1–29. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press.
Breslau, N. (2001). The epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: what is the extent of the problem? Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62, 16–22.Google Scholar
Breslau, N. (2002). Gender differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Gender Specific Medicine, 5, 34–40.Google Scholar
Breslau, N. & Davis, G. C. (1992). Posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults: risk factors for chronicity. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 671–675.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., Andreski, P. & Peterson, E. (1991). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 216–222.Google Scholar
Breslau, N., Kessler, R. C., Chilcoat, H. D.et al. (1998). Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: the 1996 Detroit area survey of trauma. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 626–632.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breslau, N., Peterson, E. L., Kessler, R. C. & Schultz, L. R. (1999). Short screening scale for DSM-IV posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 908–911.Google Scholar
Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B. & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychiatry, 68, 748–766.Google Scholar
Bromet, E. J., Parkinson, D. K. & Schulberg, H. C. (1982). Mental health of residents near the Three Mile Island reactor: a comparative study of selected groups. Journal of Preventive Psychiatry, 1, 225–276.Google Scholar
Bucholz, K. (1999). Nosology and epidemiology of addictive disorders and their comorbidity. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 22, 221–240.Google Scholar
Canino, G., Bravo, M., Rubio-Stipec, M. & Woodbury, M. (1990). The impact of disaster on mental health: prospective and retrospective analyses. International Journal of Mental Health, 19, 51–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cardeña, E. (1994). The domain of dissociation. In Dissociation: Clinical and Theoretical Perspectives, eds. Lynn, S. & J.Rhue, , pp. 15–31. New York: Guilford.
Chen, C. C., Yeh, T. L., Yang, Y. K.et al. (2001). Psychiatric morbidity and post-traumatic symptoms among survivors in the early stage following the 1999 earthquake in Taiwan. Psychiatric Research, 105, 13–22.Google Scholar
Covello, C. T., Peters, R. G., Wojteki, J. G. & Hyde, R. C. (2001). Risk communication, the West Nile virus, and bioterrorism: responding to the challenges posed by the intentional or unintentional release of a pathogen in an urban setting. Journal of Urban Health, 87, 382–391.Google Scholar
David, D., Mellman, T. A., Mendoza, L. M.et al. (1996). Psychiatric morbidity following Hurricane Andrew. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 607–612.Google Scholar
Doyle, C. R., Akhtar, J., Mrvos, R. & Krenzelok, E. P. (2004). Mass sociogenic illness – real and imaginary. Veterinary and Human Toxicology, 46, 93–95.Google Scholar
Eaton, W. W., Dryman, A. & Weissman, M. M. (1991). Panic and phobia. In Psychiatric Disorders in America: The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study, eds. Robins, L. N. & Regier, D. A., pp. 155–179. New York: The Free Press.
Epstein, R., Fullerton, C. & Ursano, R. (1998). Posttraumatic stress disorder following an air disaster: a prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 934–938.Google Scholar
Feinstein, A. & Dolan, R. (1991). Predictors of post-traumatic stress disorder following physical trauma: an examination of the stressor criterion. Psychological Medicine, 21, 85–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, C. A., Udry, J. R., Gleiter, K. & Chantala, K. (2003). Reactions of young adults to September 11, 2001. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 157, 572–578.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frazier, P. A., Byrne, C. & Klein, C. (1995). Resilience among sexual assault survivors. New York City: Presented at the 103rd Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, 11–15 August, New York.
Frederick, C. J. (1980). Effects of natural vs. human-induced violence upon victims. Evaluation and Change, Special Issue, 71–75.Google Scholar
Fullerton, C. S., Ursano, R. J., Epstein, R. S.et al. (2001). Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1486–1491.Google Scholar
Galea, S., Ahern, J., Resnick, H.et al. (2002). Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 982–987.Google Scholar
Galea, S., Vlahov, D., Resnick, H.et al. (2003). Trends of probable post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City after the September 11 terrorist attacks. American Journal of Epidemiology, 158, 514–524.Google Scholar
Gibbs, M. S. (1989). Factors in the victim that mediate between disaster and psychopathology: a review. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2, 489–514.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gleser, G. C., Green, B. L. & Winget, C. N. (1981). Prolonged Psychosocial Effects of Disaster: A Study of Buffalo Creek. New York: Academic Press.
Green, B. L. (1993). Identifying survivors at risk: trauma and stressors across events. In International Handbook of Traumatic Stress Syndromes, eds. Wilson, J. P. & Raphael, B., pp. 135–144. New York: Plenum Press.CrossRef
Green, B. L. & Linday, J. D. (1994). Post-traumatic stress disorder in victims of disasters. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 17, 301–309.Google Scholar
Green, B. L., Lindy, J. D., Grace, M. C.et al. (1990). Buffalo Creek survivors in the second decade: stability of stress symptoms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60, 43–54.Google Scholar
Green, B. L., Lindy, J. D., Grace, J. C. & Leonard, A. C. (1992). Chronic posttraumatic stress disorder and diagnostic comorbidity in a disaster sample. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180, 760–766.Google Scholar
Hassling, P. (2000). Disaster management and the Goteborg Fire of 1998: when first responders are blamed. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 2, 267–273.Google Scholar
Helzer, J. E., Robins, L. N. & McEvoy, L. (1987). Post-traumatic stress disorder in the general population. Findings of the epidemiologic catchment area survey. New England Journal of Medicine, 317, 1630–1634.Google Scholar
Helzer, J. E., Burnam, A. & McEvoy, L. T. (1991). Alcohol abuse and dependence. In Psychiatric Disorders in America: The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study, eds. Robins, L. N. & Regier, D. A., pp. 81–115. New York: The Free Press.
Hocking, F. (1970). Psychiatric aspects of extreme environmental stress. Diseases of the Nervous System, 31, 542–545.Google Scholar
Jacobsen, L. K., Southwick, S. M. & Kosten, T. R. (2001). Substance use disorders in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder: a review of the literature. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1184–1190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnes, M. (2000). Aberfan and the management of trauma. Disasters, 24, 1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, T. F. (2000). Mass psychogenic illness: role of the individual physician. American Family Physician, 62, 2649–2653, 2655–2656.Google Scholar
Joseph, S., Yule, W., Williams, R. & Hodgkinson, P. (1993). Increased substance use in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 66, 185–191.Google Scholar
Kasl, S. V., Chisholm, R. E. & Eskenazi, B. (1981). The impact of the accident at Three Mile Island on the behavior and well-being of nuclear workers. American Journal of Public Health, 71, 472–495.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M. & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048–1060.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koppel, S. & McGuffin, P. (1999). Socio-economic factors that predict psychiatric admissions at a local level. Psychological Medicine, 29, 1235–1241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lamberg, L. (2005). Terrorism assails nation's psyche. Journal of the American Medical Association, 294, 544–546.Google Scholar
Lenze, E. L., Miller, A., Munir, Z., Pornoppadol, C. & North, C. S. (1999). Psychiatric symptoms endorsed by somatization disorder patients in a psychiatric clinic. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 11, 73–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liao, W. C., Lee, M. B., Lee, Y. J.et al. (2002). Association of psychological distress with psychological factors in rescue workers within two months after a major earthquake. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association, 101, 169–176.Google Scholar
Lindy, J. D., Grace, M. C. & Green, B. L. (1981). Survivors: outreach to a reluctant population. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 51, 468–478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linley, P. A., Joseph, S., Cooper, R., Harris, S. & Meyer, C. (2003). Positive and negative changes following vicarious exposure to the September 11 terrorist attacks. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 481–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lopez-Ibor, J. J. Jr., Canas, S. F. & Rodriguez-Gamazo, M. (1985). Psychological aspects of the toxic oil syndrome catastrophe. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 352–365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maes, M., Mylle, J., Delmeire, L. & Janca, A. (2001). Pre- and post-disaster negative life events in relation to the incidence and severity of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Research, 105, 1–12.Google Scholar
Marcus, A. (2001). Attacks spark rise in substance abuse treatment; group says stress-related drug, alcohol problems will worsen. HealthScout News. www.healthscout.com, accessed December 5, 2001.
Marks, T. A. (1993). Birth defects, cancer, chemical, and public hysteria. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 2 (Pt 1), 44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McFarlane, A. C. (1989). The aetiology of post-traumatic morbidity: predisposing, precipitating and perpetuating factors. British Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 221–228.Google Scholar
McFarlane, A. C. (1998). Epidemiological evidence about the relationship between PTSD and alcohol abuse: the nature of the association. Addictive Behaviors, 23, 813–825.Google Scholar
McFarlane, A. C. & Papay, P. (1992). Multiple diagnoses in posttraumatic stress disorder in the victims of a natural disaster. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180, 498–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McMillen, J. C. (1999). Better for it: how people benefit from adversity. Social Work, 44, 455–468.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McMillen, J. C., Smith, E. M. & Fisher, R. H. (1997). Perceived benefit and mental health after three types of disaster. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychiatry, 6, 733–739.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McMillen, J. C., North, C. S. & Smith, E. M. (2000). What parts of PTSD are normal: intrusion, avoidance, or arousal? Data from the Northridge, California earthquake. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 57–75.Google Scholar
McNally, R. J., Clancy, S. A., Schacter, D. L. & Pitman, R. K. (2000). Cognitive processing of trauma cues in adults reporting repressed, recovered, or continuous memories of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 355–359.Google Scholar
Merskey, H. (1995). The Analysis of Hysteria: Understanding Conversion and Dissociation, 2nd edn. London: Gaskell.
Moore, H. E. & Friedsam, H. J. (1959). Reported emotional stress following a disaster. Social Forces, 38, 135–138.Google Scholar
Moscrop, A. (2001). Mass hysteria is seen as main threat from bioweapons. British Medical Journal, 323, 1023.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Academy of Sciences Institute of Medicine (2003). Preparing for the Psychological Consequences of Terrorism: A Public Health Strategy. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
National Research Council (1999). Chemical and Biological Terrorism: Research and Development to Improve Civilian Medical Response. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Newman, J. P. & Foreman, C. (1987). The Sun Valley Mall disaster study. Presented at the Annual Meeting of International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. Baltimore, MD.
Norris, F. H., Friedman, M. J. & Watson, P. J. (2002a). 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part II. Summary and implications of the disaster mental health research. Psychiatry, 65, 240–260.Google Scholar
Norris, F. H., Friedman, M. J., Watson, P. J.et al. (2002b). 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part I. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981–2001. Psychiatry, 65, 207–239.Google Scholar
North, C. S. (1995). Human response to violent trauma. Ballieres Clinical Psychiatry, 1, 225–245.Google Scholar
North, C. S. (2001). Psychosocial consequences of disasters: a longitudinal study. Final report to NIMH for Grant R01 MH 040025. St. Louis, Mo: Washington University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry.
North, C. S. & Hong, B. A. (2000). Project C.R.E.S.T.: a new model for mental health intervention after a community disaster. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1–2.Google Scholar
North, C. S. & Pfefferbaum, B. (2002). Research on the mental health effects of terrorism. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 633–636.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
North, C. S., Smith, E. M., McCool, R. E. & Lightcap, P. E. (1989). Acute post-disaster coping and adjustment. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2, 353–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
North, C. S., Smith, E. M. & Spitznagel, E. L. (1994). Posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors of a mass shooting. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 82–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
North, C. S., Smith, E. M. & Spitznagel, E. L. (1997). One-year follow-up of survivors of a mass shooting. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1696–1702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
North, C. S., Nixon, S. J., Shariat, S.et al. (1999). Psychiatric disorders among survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. Journal of the American Medical Association, 282, 755–762.Google Scholar
North, C. S., Spitznagel, E. L. & Smith, E. M. (2001). A prospective study of coping after exposure to a mass murder episode. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 13, 81–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
North, C. S., McMillen, J. C., Pfefferbaum, B.et al. (2002a). Coping, functioning, and adjustment of rescue workers after the Oklahoma City bombing. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15, 171–175.Google Scholar
North, C. S., Tivis, L., McMillen, J. C.et al. (2002b). Psychiatric disorders in rescue workers after the Oklahoma City bombing. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 857–859.Google Scholar
North, C. S., Pfefferbaum, B., Tivis, L.et al. (2004). The course of posttraumatic stress disorder in a follow-up study of survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 16, 209–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norwood, A. E., Holloway, H. C. & Ursano, R. J. (2001). Psychological effects of biological warfare. Military Medicine, 166, 27–28.Google Scholar
Pastel, R. H. (2001). Collective behaviors: mass panic and outbreaks of multiple unexplained symptoms. Military Medicine, 166, 44–46.Google Scholar
Pfefferbaum, B. & Doughty, D. E. (2001). Increased alcohol use in a treatment sample of Oklahoma City bombing victims. Psychiatry, 64, 296–303.Google Scholar
Pfefferbaum, B., Nixon, S. J., Krug, R. S.et al. (1999). Clinical needs assessment of middle and high school students following the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1069–1074.Google Scholar
Pfefferbaum, B., Seale, T. W., McDonald, N. B.et al. (2000). Posttraumatic stress two years after the Oklahoma City bombing in youths geographically distant from the explosion. Psychiatry, 63, 358–370.Google Scholar
Pfefferbaum, B., Pfefferbaum, R. L., North, C. S. & Neas, B. R. (2002). Does television viewing satisfy criteria for exposure in posttraumatic stress disorder? Psychiatry, 65, 306–309.Google Scholar
Pfefferbaum, B., Seale, T. W., Brandt, E. N.et al. (2003). Media exposure in children one hundred miles from a terrorist bombing. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 15, 1–8.Google Scholar
Pfefferbaum, B., North, C. S. & Pfefferbaum, R. L. (2005). Psychosocial issues in bioterrorism. In Biodefense: Principles and Pathogens, eds. Bronze, M. S. & Greenfield, R. A.. Norfolk, England: Horizon Bioscience.
Pincinelli, M. & Wilkinson, G. (2000). Gender differences in depression. Critical review. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 486–492.Google Scholar
Prigerson, H. G., Maciejewski, P. K. & Rosenheck, R. A. (2001). Combat trauma: trauma with highest risk of delayed onset and unresolved posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, unemployment, and abuse among men. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 189, 99–108.Google Scholar
Ramsay, R. (1990). Post-traumatic stress disorder: a new clinical entity? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 34, 355–365.Google Scholar
Ramsay, R., Gorst-Unsworth, C. & Turner, S. (1993). Psychiatric morbidity in survivors of organised state violence including torture. British Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 55–59.Google Scholar
Regehr, C., Hemsworth, D. & Hill, J. (2001). Individual predictors of posttraumatic distress: a structural equation model. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 46, 156–161.Google Scholar
Robins, L. N., Fishbach, R. L., Smith, E. M. et al. (1986). Impact of disaster on previously assessed mental health. In Disaster Stress Studies: New Methods and Findings, ed. Shore, J. H., pp. 22–48. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.
Roy, W. (1982). Risk factors for suicide in psychiatric patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 1089–1095.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubonis, A. V. & Bickman, L. (1991). Psychological impairment in the wake of disaster: the disaster–psychopathology relationship. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 384–399.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (2003). Poverty and child mental health: natural experiments and social causation. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290, 2063–2064.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saxon, A. J., Davis, T. M., Sloan, K. L.et al. (2001). Trauma, symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, and associated problems among incarcerated veterans. Psychiatric Services, 52, 959–964.Google Scholar
Schlenger, W. E., Caddell, J. M., Ebert, L.et al. (2002). Psychological reactions to terrorist attacks: findings from the National Study of Americans' Reactions to September 11. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 581–588.Google Scholar
Schuster, M. A., Stein, B. D., Jaycox, L.et al. (2001). A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. New England Journal of Medicine, 345, 1507–1512.Google Scholar
Shalev, A. Y., Tuval-Mashiach, R. & Hadar, H. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder as a result of mass trauma. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65 (Suppl 1), 4–10.Google Scholar
Shimizu, S., Aso, K., Noda, T.et al. (2000). Natural disasters and alcohol consumption in a cultural context: the Great Hanshin Earthquake in Japan. Addiction, 95, 529–536.Google Scholar
Shore, J. H., Tatum, E. L. & Vollmer, W. M. (1986a). Psychiatric reactions to disaster: the Mount St Helens experience. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 590–595.Google Scholar
Shore, J. H., Tatum, E. L. & Vollmer, W. M. (1986b). The Mount St. Helens stress response syndrome. In Disaster Stress Studies: New Methods and Findings, ed. Shore, J. H., pp. 77–97. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press.
Shore, J. H., Vollmer, W. M. & Tatum, E. L. (1989). Community patterns of posttraumatic stress disorders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 177, 681–685.Google Scholar
Silver, R. C., Holman, E. A., McIntosh, D. N., Poulin, M. & Gil-Rivas, V. (2002). Nationwide longitudinal study of psychological responses to September 11. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 1235–1244.Google Scholar
Sims, A. & Sims, D. (1998). The phenomenology of post-traumatic stress disorder. A symptomatic study of 70 victims of psychological trauma. Psychopathology, 31, 96–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sloan, P. (1988). Posttraumatic stress in survivors of an airplane crash-landing: a clinical and exploratory research intervention. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 1, 211–229.Google Scholar
Smith, D. W., Christiansen, E. H., Vincent, R. & Hann, N. E. (1999). Population effects of the bombing of Oklahoma City. Journal of the Oklahoma State Medical Association, 92, 193–198.Google Scholar
Smith, E. M., Robins, L. N., Przybeck, T. R., Goldring, E. & Solomon, S. D. (1986). Psychosocial consequences of a disaster. In Disaster Stress Studies: New Methods and Findings, ed. Shore, J. H., pp. 49–76. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.
Smith, E. M., North, C. S., McCool, R. E. & Shea, J. M. (1990). Acute postdisaster psychiatric disorders: identification of persons at risk. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 202–206.Google Scholar
Smith, E. M., North, C. S. & Spitznagel, E. L. (1993). Post-traumatic stress in survivors of three disasters. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 8, 353–368.Google Scholar
Solomon, S. D., Smith, E. M., Robins, L. N. & Fischbach, R. L. (1987). Social involvement as a mediator of disaster-induced stress. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, 1092–1112.Google Scholar
Southwick, S. M., Yehuda, R. & Giller, E. L. (1993). Personality disorders in treatment-seeking combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1020–1023.Google Scholar
Sprang, G. (2001). Vicarious stress: patterns of disturbance and use of mental health services by those indirectly affected by the Oklahoma City bombing. Psychological Reports, 89, 331–338.Google Scholar
Steinglass, P. & Gerrity, E. (1990). Natural disasters and posttraumatic stress disorder: short-term vs. long-term recovery in two disaster-affected communities. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 1746–1765.Google Scholar
Steinglass, P., Weisstub, E. & De-Nour, A. K. (1988). Perceived personal networks as mediators of stress reactions. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 1259–1264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sungur, M. & Kaya, B. (2001). The onset and longitudinal course of a man-made post-traumatic morbidity: survivors of the Sivas disaster. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice, 5, 195–202.Google Scholar
Tennant, C., Goulston, K. & Dent, O. (1986). Australian prisoners of war of the Japanese: post-war psychiatric hospitalization and psychological morbidity. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 20, 334–340.Google Scholar
Viel, J. F., Curbakova, E., Eglite, M., Zvagule, T. & Vincent, C. (1997). Risk factors for long-term mental and psychosomatic distress in Latvian Chernobyl liquidators. Environmental Health Perspectives, 105, 1539–1544.Google Scholar
Vlahov, D., Galea, S., Resnick, H.et al. (2002). Increased use of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana among Manhattan, New York, residents after the September 11th terrorist attacks. American Journal of Epidemiology, 155, 988–996.Google Scholar
Weisaeth, L. (1985). Post-traumatic stress disorder after an industrial disaster. In Psychiatry-The State of the Art, eds. Pichot, P., Berner, P., Wolf, R. & Thau, K., pp. 299–307. New York: Plenum Press.
Weisaeth, L. (2001). Acute posttraumatic stress: nonacceptance of early intervention. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62, 35–40.Google Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Bruce, M. L., Leaf, P. J., Florio, L. P. & Holzer, I. C. (1991). Affective disorders. In Psychiatric Disorders in America: The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study, eds. Robins, L. N. & Regier, D. A., pp. 53–80. New York: The Free Press.
Wetzel, R. D., Clayton, P. J., Cloninger, C. R.et al (2000). Diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder with the MMPI: PK scale scores in somatization disorder. Psychological Reports, 87, 535–541.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (1991). Psychosocial Guidelines for Preparedness and Intervention in Disaster. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Zatzick, D. F., Roy-Byrne, P., Russo, J. E.et al. (2001). Collaborative interventions for physically injured trauma survivors: a pilot randomized effectiveness trial. General Hospital Psychiatry, 23, 114–123.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×