If subordinate groups are to be kept in “their place,” it is then crucial that they also be restricted in the places they are allowed to live and in the quality of the goods and services they have access to. This implies that, among the many other ways in which subordinates will be discriminated against, discrimination in both the housing and retail markets will form important and essential arcs in the circle of oppression.

Discrimination in the Housing Market

Housing discrimination literally gets people where they live. Despite wide-scale attempts by most modern states to eliminate the more blatant and overt forms of housing discrimination, covert housing discrimination remains an extremely powerful force in helping to isolate subordinates into residential areas that are impoverished, underserviced, and dangerous. As we discuss in more detail ahead, isolation within these areas further erodes the ability of subordinates to exploit their full potential and to become equal members of civil society.

Perceived Housing Discrimination

The first evidence we consider are people's reports of housing discrimination taken from recent studies conducted in Sweden, the United States, and the United Kingdom. In 1996, a large sample of foreign immigrants to Sweden were asked about their perceptions of discrimination within Swedish society, including the housing market (i.e., being denied home ownership, home financing, or apartment rental). As Figure 5.1 shows, certain immigrant groups perceived more housing discrimination than others.