Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-skm99 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T16:02:47.607Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 6 - Shaken Baby Syndrome or Benign External Hydrocephalus

How Is Abusive Head Trauma Depicted in the Scientific Literature?

from Section 2 - Medicine

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 June 2023

By
Knut Wester ,
Johan Wikström  and
Joseph Scheller
Edited by
Keith A. Findley ,
Cyrille Rossant ,
Kana Sasakura ,
Leila Schneps ,
Waney Squier  and
Knut Wester
Keith A. Findley
Affiliation:
University of Wisconsin, Madison
Cyrille Rossant
Affiliation:
University College London
Kana Sasakura
Affiliation:
Konan University, Japan
Leila Schneps
Affiliation:
Sorbonne Université, Paris
Waney Squier
Affiliation:
John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford
Knut Wester
Affiliation:
Universitetet i Bergen, Norway
Get access

Summary

The radiological characteristics of abusive head trauma (AHT) appear to be vaguely defined. A literature search during the period 2008-21 identified 63 articles presenting 172 illustrations with subdural hematomas described as representative of AHT. We evaluated these for signs of benign external hydrocephalus (BEH) or expansive acute subdural haematoma (ASDH). Signs of BEH were widened interhemispheric distance, preserved subarachnoid space and preserved cortical relief despite an overlying SDH, and absence of ventricle compression or midline shift. Signs of an ASDH were hyperattenuating SDH combined with compression of the subarachnoid space, the cortical relief, and ventricles, as well as midline shift. Radiological findings suggesting BEH were detected in 59 illustrations (34.3%). A weaker suspicion of BEH was raised in 32 images. An expansive ASDH was detected in 24 images, and 57 illustrations showed neither signs of BEH nor expansive ASDH or were inconclusive. Males were overrepresented in all groups. Mean age was 4.2 months in the BEH-like group and 17.6 months in the ASDH-like group. BEH complicated by SDH may have been misdiagnosed as SBS/AHT in many of these articles.

Keywords

benign external hydrocephalusbenign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaceshydrocephalussubdural haematomacerebrospinal fluidchronic subdural haematomas
Type
Chapter
Information
Shaken Baby Syndrome
Investigating the Abusive Head Trauma Controversy
 , pp. 105 - 128
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Duhaime, AC, Alario, AJ, Lewander, WJ et al. Head injury in very young children: Mechanisms, injury types, and ophthalmologic findings in 100 hospitalized patients younger than 2 years of age. Pediatrics. 1992;90(2):179–85.Google Scholar
Choudhary, AK, Servaes, S, Slovis, TL et al. Consensus statement on abusive head trauma in infants and young children. Pediatric Radiology. 2018;48(8):1048–65.Google Scholar
Flom, L, Fromkin, J, Panigrahy, A, Tyler-Kabara, E, Berger, RP. Development of a screening MRI for infants at risk for abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2016;46(4):519–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dandy, WE. Treatment of an unusual subdural hydroma (external hydrocephalus). Archives of Surgery (Chicago). 1946;52(4):421–8.Google Scholar
Alvarez, LA, Maytal, J, Shinnar, S. Idiopathic external hydrocephalus: Natural history and relationship to benign familial macrocephaly. Pediatrics. 1986;77(6):901–7.Google Scholar
Maytal, J, Alvarez, LA, Elkin, CM, Shinnar, S. External hydrocephalus: Radiologic spectrum and differentiation from cerebral atrophy. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1987;148(6):1223–30.Google Scholar
Vinchon, M. Subdural hematoma in infants: Can it occur spontaneously? Data from a prospective series and critical review of the literature by Vinchon et al. Reply. Child’s Nervous System. 2010;26(11):1195–1205.Google Scholar
Wittschieber, D, Karger, B, Niederstadt, T, Pfeiffer, H, Hahnemann, ML. Subdural hygromas in abusive head trauma: Pathogenesis, diagnosis, and forensic implications. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2015;36(3):432–9.Google Scholar
Zahl, SM, Egge, A, Helseth, E, Wester, K. Benign external hydrocephalus: A review, with emphasis on management. Neurosurgery Review. 2011;34(4):417–32.Google Scholar
Zahl, SM, Egge, A, Helseth, E, Wester, K. Clinical, radiological, and demographic details of benign external hydrocephalus: A population-based study. Pediatric Neurology. 2019;96:53–7.Google Scholar
Wiig, US, Zahl, SM, Egge, A, Helseth, E, Wester, K. Epidemiology of benign external hydrocephalus in Norway: A population-based study. Pediatric Neurology. 2017;73:36–41.Google Scholar
McNeely, PD, Atkinson, JD, Saigal, G, O’Gorman, AM, Farmer, JP. Subdural hematomas in infants with benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces are not pathognomonic for child abuse. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2006;27(8):1725–8.Google Scholar
Ment, LR, Duncan, CC, Geehr, R. Benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces in the infant. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1981;54(4):504–8.Google Scholar
Korbin, MA. Macrocephaly: Report of case verified by ventriculography and autopsy. Bulletin of the Los Angeles Neurological Society. 1954;19(3):178–85.Google Scholar
Riley, HD, Smith, WR. Macrocephaly, pseudopapilledema and multiple hemangiomata: A previously undescribed heredofamilial syndrome. Pediatrics. 1960;26(2):293–300.Google Scholar
Dickinson, EH, Pastor, BH. 2 cases of acute subdural hygroma simulating massive intracranial hemorrhage. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1948;5(1):98–101.Google Scholar
Kumar, R, Singhal, N, Mahapatra, AK. Traumatic subdural effusions in children following minor head injury. Child’s Nervous System. 2008;24(12):1391–6.Google Scholar
Robertson, WC Jr., Chun, RW, Orrison, WW, Sackett, JF. Benign subdural collections of infancy. Journal of Pediatrics. 1979;94(3):382–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mikkelsen, R, Rodevand, LN, Wiig, US, et al. Neurocognitive and psychosocial function in children with benign external hydrocephalus (BEH): A long-term follow-up study. Child’s Nervous System. 2017;33(1):91–9.Google Scholar
Muenchberger, H, Assaad, N, Joy, P, Brunsdon, R, Shores, EA. Idiopathic macrocephaly in the infant: Long-term neurological and neuropsychological outcome. Child’s Nervous System. 2006;22(10):1242–8.Google Scholar
Ghosh, PS, Ghosh, D. Subdural hematoma in infants without accidental or nonaccidental injury: Benign external hydrocephalus, a risk factor. Clinical Pediatrics. 2011;50(10):897–903.Google Scholar
Hellbusch, LC. Benign extracerebral fluid collections in infancy: Clinical presentation and long-term follow-up. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2007;107(2 Suppl):119–25.Google Scholar
Laubscher, B, Deonna, T, Uske, A, Van, MG. Primitive megalencephaly in children: Natural history, medium term prognosis with special reference to external hydrocephalus. European Journal of Pediatrics. 1990;149(7):502–7.Google Scholar
Miller, D, Barnes, P, Miller, M. The significance of macrocephaly or enlarging head circumference in infants with the triad: Further evidence of mimics of shaken baby syndrome. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 2015;36(2):111–20.Google Scholar
Piatt, JH Jr. A pitfall in the diagnosis of child abuse: External hydrocephalus, subdural hematoma, and retinal hemorrhages. Neurosurgery in Focus. 1999;7(4):e4.Google Scholar
Azais, M, Echenne, B. Idiopathic subarachnoid space enlargement (benign external hydrocephalus) in infants. Annales de pediatrie. 1992;39(9):550–8.Google Scholar
Gout, A, Gautier, I, Bellaiche, M et al. Idiopathic subarachnoid space enlargement in infancy: Simple anatomic variant or hemorrhagic risk factor? Archives de pediatrie. 1997;4(10):983–7.Google Scholar
Kapila, A, Trice, J, Spies, WG, Siegel, BA, Gado, MH. Enlarged cerebrospinal fluid spaces in infants with subdural hematomas. Radiology. 1982;142(3):669–72.Google Scholar
McKeag, H, Christian, CW, Rubin, D et al. Subdural hemorrhage in pediatric patients with enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces: Clinical article. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatric. 2013;11(4):438–44.Google Scholar
Mori, K, Sakamoto, T, Nishimura, K, Fujiwara, K. Subarachnoid fluid collection in infants complicated by subdural hematoma. Child’s Nervous System. 1993;9(5):282–4.Google Scholar
Papasian, NC, Frim, DM. A theoretical model of benign external hydrocephalus that predicts a predisposition towards extra-axial hemorrhage after minor head trauma. Pediatric Neurosurgery. 2000;33(4):188–93.Google Scholar
Pittman, T. Significance of a subdural hematoma in a child with external hydrocephalus. Pediatric Neurosurgery. 2003;39(2):57–9.Google Scholar
Ravid, S, Maytal, J. External hydrocephalus: A probable cause for subdural hematoma in infancy. Pediatric Neurology. 2003;28(2):139–41.Google Scholar
Caldarelli, M, Di Rocco, C, Romani, R. Surgical treatment of chronic subdural hygromas in infants and children. Acta Neurochirurgica. 2002;144(6):581–8.Google Scholar
Kumar, R. External hydrocephalus in small children. Child’s Nervous System. 2006;22(10):1237–41.Google Scholar
Alper, G, Ekinci, G, Yilmaz, Y et al. Magnetic resonance imaging characteristics of benign macrocephaly in children. Journal of Child Neurology. 1999;14(10):678–82.Google Scholar
Barlow, CF. CSF dynamics in hydrocephalus: With special attention to external hydrocephalus. Brain Development. 1984;6(2):119–27.Google Scholar
Carolan, PL, Mclaurin, RL, Towbin, RB, Towbin, JA, Egelhoff, JC. Benign extraaxial collections of infancy. Pediatric Neuroscience. 1986;12(3):140–4.Google Scholar
Castro-Gago, M, Perez-Gomez, C, Novo-Rodriguez, MI et al. [Benign idiopathic external hydrocephalus (benign subdural collection) in 39 children: Its natural history and relation to familial macrocephaly]. Review of Neurology. 2005;40(9):513–17.Google Scholar
Gherpelli, JL, Scaramuzzi, V, Manreza, ML, Diament, AJ. Follow-up study of macrocephalic children with enlargement of the subarachnoid space. Arquivos neuropsiquiatria. 1992;50(2):156–62.Google Scholar
Medina, LS, Frawley, K, Zurakowski, D et al. Children with macrocrania: Clinical and imaging predictors of disorders requiring surgery. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2001;22(3):564–70.Google Scholar
Prassopoulos, P, Cavouras, D, Golfinopoulos, S, Nezi, M. The size of the intraventricular and extraventricular cerebrospinal fluid compartments in children with idiopathic benign widening of the frontal subarachnoid space. Neuroradiology. 1995;37(5):418–21.Google Scholar
Robertson, WC Jr, Gomez, MR. External hydrocephalus: Early finding in congenital communicating hydrocephalus. Archives of Neurology. 1978;35(8):541–4.Google Scholar
Adamsbaum, C, Grabar, S, Mejean, N, Rey-Salmon, C. Abusive head trauma: Judicial admissions highlight violent and repetitive shaking. Pediatrics. 2010;126(3):546–55.Google Scholar
Adamsbaum, C, Mejean, N, Merzoug, V, Rey-Salmon, C. How to explore and report children with suspected non-accidental trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2010;40(6):932–8.Google Scholar
Adamsbaum, C, Morel, B, Ducot, B, Antoni, G, Rey-Salmon, C. Dating the abusive head trauma episode and perpetrator statements: Key points for imaging. Pediatric Radiology. 2014;44:578–88.Google Scholar
Ashwal, S, Wycliffe, ND, Holshouser, BA. Advanced neuroimaging in children with nonaccidental trauma. Developments in Neuroscience (Basel). 2010;32(5–6):343–60.Google Scholar
Barnes, PD. Imaging of nonaccidental injury and the mimics: Issues and controversies in the era of evidence-based medicine. Radiologic Clinics of North America. 2011;49(1):205–29.Google Scholar
Beez, T, Schmitz, AK, Steiger, HJ, Munoz-Bendix, C. Endoscopic lavage of extensive chronic subdural hematoma in an infant after abusive head trauma: Adaptation of a technique from ventricular neuroendoscopy. Cureus. 2018;10(3):1–6. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.2258.Google Scholar
Berger, RP, Furtado, AD, Flom, LL, Fromkin, JB, Panigrahy, A. Implementation of a brain injury screen MRI for infants at risk for abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2020;50(1):75–82.Google Scholar
Binenbaum, G, Christian, CW, Ichord, RN et al. Retinal hemorrhage and brain injury patterns on diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in children with head trauma. Journal of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology. 2013;17(6):603–8.Google Scholar
Blumfield, E. Pearls and pitfalls in imaging of abusive head trauma. Seminars in Ultrasound, CT and MRI. 2020;41(5):411–20.Google Scholar
Boehnke, M, Mirsky, D, Stence, N et al. Occult head injury is common in children with concern for physical abuse. Pediatric Radiology. 2018;48(8):1123–9.Google Scholar
Caylan, ND, Yilmaz, G, Oral, R, Karacan, CD, Zorlu, P. Abusive head trauma: Report of 3 cases. Turkish Journal of Trauma and Emergency Surgery. 2013;19(3):261–6.Google Scholar
Elliott, CA, Ramaswamy, V, Jacob, FD, Sankar, T, Mehta, V. Early diffusion restriction of white matter in infants with small subdural hematomas is associated with delayed atrophy. Child’s Nervous System. 2017;33(2):289–95.Google ScholarPubMed
Erfurt, C, Hahn, G, Roesner, D, Schmidt, U. Pediatric radiological diagnostic procedures in cases of suspected child abuse. Forensic Science and Medical Pathology. 2011;7(1):65–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feldman, KW, Sugar, NF, Browd, SR. Initial clinical presentation of children with acute and chronic versus acute subdural hemorrhage resulting from abusive head trauma. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatric. 2015;16(2):177–85.Google Scholar
Fernando, S, Obaldo, RE, Walsh, IR, Lowe, LH. Neuroimaging of nonaccidental head trauma: Pitfalls and controversies. Pediatric Radiology. 2008;38(8):827–38.Google Scholar
Foerster, BR, Petrou, M, Lin, D, et al. Neuroimaging evaluation of non-accidental head trauma with correlation to clinical outcomes: A review of 57 cases. Journal of Pediatrics. 2009;154(4):573–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cartocci, G, Fineschi, V, Padovano, M et al. Shaken baby syndrome: Magnetic resonance imaging features in abusive head trauma. Brain Science. 2021;11(2):1–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gencturk, M, Tore, HG, Nascene, DR et al. Various cranial and orbital imaging findings in pediatric abusive and non-abusive head trauma, and relation to outcomes. Clinical Neuroradiology. 2019;29(2):253–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Girard, N, Brunel, H, Dory-Lautrec, P, Chabrol, B. Neuroimaging differential diagnoses to abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2016;46(5):603–14.Google Scholar
Greiner, MV, Richards, TJ, Care, MM, Leach, JL. Prevalence of subdural collections in children with macrocrania. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2013;34(12):2373–8.Google Scholar
Gunda, D, Cornwell, BO, Dahmoush, HM, Jazbeh, S, Alleman, AM. Pediatric central nervous system imaging of nonaccidental trauma: Beyond subdural hematomas. Radiographics. 2019;39(1):213–28.Google Scholar
Haas-Lude, K, Roulet-Perez, E, Dobler-Neumann, M et al. Cerebellar lesions in pediatric abusive head trauma. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology. 2019;23(4):604–8.Google Scholar
Hahnemann, ML, Kinner, S, Schweiger, B et al. Imaging of bridging vein thrombosis in infants with abusive head trauma: The ‘tadpole sign’. European Radiology. 2015;25(2):299–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hedlund, GL, Frasier, LD. Neuroimaging of abusive head trauma. Forensic Science and Medical Pathology. 2009;5(4):280–90.Google Scholar
Hsieh, KLC, Zimmerman, RA, Kao, HW, Chen, CY. Revisiting neuroimaging of abusive head trauma in infants and young children. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2015;204(5):944–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hung, KL. Pediatric abusive head trauma. Biomedical Journal. 2020;43(3):240–50.Google Scholar
Kadom, N, Khademian, Z, Vezina, G et al. Usefulness of MRI detection of cervical spine and brain injuries in the evaluation of abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2014;44(7):839–48.Google Scholar
Knox, B, Rorke-Adams, LB, Luyet, FM. Subdural hematoma rebleeding in relation to abusive head trauma. Journal of Family Violence. 2016;31(7):815–21.Google Scholar
Kralik, SF, Finke, W, Wu, IC et al. Radiologic head CT interpretation errors in pediatric abusive and non-abusive head trauma patients. Pediatric Radiology. 2017;47(8):942–51.Google Scholar
Kralik, SF, Yasrebi, M, Supakul, N et al. Diagnostic performance of ultrafast brain MRI for evaluation of abusive head trauma. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2017;38(4):807–13.Google Scholar
Langford, S, Panigrahy, A, Narayanan, S et al. Multiplanar reconstructed CT images increased depiction of intracranial hemorrhages in pediatric head trauma. Neuroradiology. 2015;57(12):1263–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matschke, J, Voss, J, Obi, N et al. Nonaccidental head injury is the most common cause of subdural bleeding in infants < 1 year of age. Pediatrics. 2009;124(6):1587–94.Google Scholar
Nishimoto, H. Recent progress and future issues in the management of abusive head trauma. Neurologia Medico-chirurgica. 2015;55(4):296–304.Google Scholar
Oates, AJ, Sidpra, J, Mankad, K. Parenchymal brain injuries in abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2021;51(6):898–910.Google Scholar
O’Brien, WT, Care, MM, Leach, JL. Pediatric emergencies: Imaging of pediatric head trauma. Seminars in Ultrasound, CT and MRI. 2018;39(5):495–514.Google Scholar
Orman, G, Kralik, SF, Meoded, A et al. MRI findings in pediatric abusive head trauma: A review. Journal of Neuroimaging. 2020;30(1):15–27.Google Scholar
Orru, E, Calloni, SF, Tekes, A, Huisman, TAGM, Soares, BP. The child with macrocephaly: Differential diagnosis and neuroimaging findings. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2018;210(4):848–59.Google Scholar
Orru’, E, Huisman, TAGM, Izbudak, I. Prevalence, patterns, and clinical relevance of hypoxic-ischemic injuries in children exposed to abusive head trauma. Journal of Neuroimaging. 2018;28(6):608–14.Google Scholar
Palmer, AW, Albert, GW. Minicraniotomy with a subgaleal pocket for the treatment of subdural fluid collections in infants. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2019;23(4):480–5.Google Scholar
Pfeifer, CM, Hammer, MR, Mangona, KL, Booth, TN. Non-accidental trauma: The role of radiology. Emergency Radiology. 2017;24(2):207–13.Google Scholar
Porto, L, Bartels, MB, Zwaschka, J et al. Abusive head trauma: Experience improves diagnosis. Neuroradiology. 2020;63(3):417–30.Google Scholar
Rajaram, S, Batty, R, Rittey, CDC, Griffiths, PD, Connolly, DJA. Neuroimaging in non-accidental head injury in children: An important element of assessment. Postgraduate Medical Journal. 2011;87(1027):355–61.Google Scholar
Reith, W, Yilmaz, U, Kraus, C. Shaken baby syndrome. Radiologe. 2016;56(5):424–31.Google ScholarPubMed
Rolfes, MC, Guerin, JB, Brucker, J, Kalina, P. Pediatric abusive head trauma: Review of standard imaging evaluation and typical findings. Journal of Pediatric Neurology. 2018;16(2):39–55.Google Scholar
Ronning, MM, Carolan, PL, Cutler, GJ, Patterson, RJ. Parasagittal vertex clots on head CT in infants with subdural hemorrhage as a predictor for abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2018;48(13):1915–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saigal, G, Ezuddin, NS, de la Vega, G. Neurologic emergencies in pediatric patients including accidental and nonaccidental trauma. Neuroimaging Clinics of North America. 2018;28(3):453–70.Google Scholar
Shekdar, K. Imaging of abusive trauma. Indian Journal of Pediatrics. 2016;83(6):578–88.Google Scholar
Sieswerda-Hoogendoorn, T, Boos, S, Spivack, B, Bilo, RAC, Van Rijn, RR. Educational paper. Abusive head trauma part II: Radiological aspects. European Journal of Pediatrics. 2012;171(4):617–23.Google Scholar
Stöver, B. Bildgebende Diagnostik der Kindesmisshandlung. Monatsschrift Kinderheilkde. 2008;156:385–98.Google Scholar
Takeda, R, Kobayashi, S, Kamioka, N et al. Post-traumatic stress syndrome due to abusive head trauma in two infants with different brain imaging findings. Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2020;250(3):167–71.Google Scholar
Tysiak, EWN, Petersen, D, Gottschalk, S et al. Progression of chronic subdural haematomas in an infant boy after abusive head trauma. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology. 2012;16(6):736–9.Google Scholar
Van Rijn, RR, Spevak, MR. Imaging of neonatal child abuse with an emphasis on abusive head trauma. Magnetic Resonance Imaging Clinics of North America. 2011;19(4):791–812, viii.Google Scholar
Vazquez, E, Delgado, I, Sanchez-Montanez, A et al. Imaging abusive head trauma: Why use both computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging? Pediatric Radiology. 2014;44:589–603.Google Scholar
Vezina, G. Assessment of the nature and age of subdural collections in nonaccidental head injury with CT and MRI. Pediatric Radiology. 2009;39(6):586–90.Google Scholar
Vilanilam, GK, Jayappa, S, Desai, S et al. Venous injury in pediatric abusive head trauma: A pictorial review. Pediatric Radiology. 2021;51(6):918–26.Google Scholar
Vinchon, M. Shaken baby syndrome: What certainty do we have? Child’s Nervous System. 2017;33(10):1727–33.Google Scholar
Yilmaz, U, Korner, H, Meyer, S, Reith, W. Multifocal signal loss at bridging veins on susceptibility-weighted imaging in abusive head trauma. Clinical Neuroradiology. 2015;25(2):181–5.Google Scholar
Wittschieber, D, Karger, B, Pfeiffer, H, Hahnemann, ML. Understanding subdural collections in pediatric abusive head trauma. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2019;40(3):388–95.Google Scholar
Wittschieber, D, Muggenthaler, H, Mall, G, Mentzel, HJ. [Bridging vein injuries in shaken baby syndrome: Forensic-radiological meta-analysis with special focus on the tadpole sign]. Radiologe. 2021;61(1):71–9.Google Scholar
Wright, JN, Feyma, TJ, Ishak, GE et al. Subdural hemorrhage rebleeding in abused children: Frequency, associations and clinical presentation. Pediatric Radiology. 2019;49(13):1762–72.Google Scholar
Mori, K, Yamamoto, T, Horinaka, N, Maeda, M. Arachnoid cyst is a risk factor for chronic subdural hematoma in juveniles: Twelve cases of chronic subdural hematoma associated with arachnoid cyst. Journal of Neurotrauma. 2002;19(9):1017–27.Google Scholar
Tucker, J, Choudhary, AK, Piatt, J. Macrocephaly in infancy: Benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces and subdural collections. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2016;18(1):16–20.Google Scholar
Lee, HC, Chong, S, Lee, JY et al. Benign extracerebral fluid collection complicated by subdural hematoma and fluid collection: Clinical characteristics and management. Child’s Nervous System. 2018;34(2):235–45.Google Scholar
Wester, K. Two infant boys misdiagnosed as ‘shaken baby’ and their twin sisters: A cautionary tale. Pediatric Neurology. 2019;97:3–11.Google Scholar
Wester, K, Wikström, J, Lynøe, N, Eriksson, A. Unsubstantiated belief in the diagnostic accuracy of the triad of abusive head trauma may lead to incorrect diagnoses of alleged abuse cases. Acta Paediatrica. 2022;111(4):809–11.Google Scholar
Miller, R, Miller, M. Overrepresentation of males in traumatic brain injury of infancy and in infants with macrocephaly: Further evidence that questions the existence of shaken baby syndrome. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 2010;31(2):165–73.Google Scholar
Piatt, JH. Monozygotic twins discordant for external hydrocephalus. Pediatric Neurosurgery. 2001;35(4):211–15.Google Scholar
Wester, K, Stridbeck, U, Syse, A, Wikstrom, J. Re-evaluation of medical findings in alleged shaken baby syndrome and abusive head trauma in Norwegian courts fails to support abuse diagnoses. Acta Paediatrica. 2021;111(4):779–92.Google Scholar
Choudhary, AK, Bradford, R, Dias, MS, Thamburaj, K, Boal, DKB. Venous injury in abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2015;45(12):1803–13.Google Scholar
Sieswerda-Hoogendoorn, T, Boos, S, Spivack, B, Bilo, RAC, Van Rijn, RR. Educational paper. Abusive head trauma part I: Clinical aspects. European Journal of Pediatrics. 2012;171(3):415–23.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×