Introduction

Ever since Emile Durkheim introduced the concept of solidarity into the social sciences, many authors have evaluated this topic, often with quite different views. The question of whether or not communities, nations or other systems have enough ‘solidarity’ has been the source of numerous fierce scientific (and societal) debates. This has not changed in the era of globalisation. Again, opinions differ greatly on the impact of globalisation on solidarity. Some authors perceive globalisation as a threat to domestic solidarities (see, for instance, Brunkhorst, 2007), whereas others point to the possibilities that globalisation offers for solidarity within or beyond the current realms (see, for instance, Gould, 2007). The recent ‘credit crunch’ crisis clearly demonstrated the interdependencies between the open economies of the world. As a consequence of these interdependencies, social and financial challenges extend beyond traditional regional and national realms. This was illustrated by concerted efforts to deal with the consequences of the credit crunch both on the global level and on different continental levels (see Hemerijck, 2009). Within the European Union (EU), efforts are aimed at increasing the level of solidarity and social cohesion both within and across European member states. The beginning of the unitary market – initiated with the Treaty of the Hague in 1986 – impelled the EU also to pay attention to the social dimensions of the process of European integration. This led to the introduction of social cohesion as an important goal of the Treaty of Maastricht (1992). This treaty contains the following objective: ‘promote economic and social progress which is balanced and sustainable, in particular through the creation of an area without internal frontiers, through the strengthening of economic and social cohesion and through the establishment of economic and monetary union’ (Article 2). The Treaty of Lisbon (2007) stated further that, based upon a highly competitive social market economy, the EU will aim at full employment and a high level of protection, combat social exclusion, promote social protection, and solidarity between generations and protect the rights of the child. Finally: ‘It shall promote economic, social and territorial cohesion, and solidarity among Member States.’