Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- Preface
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Snow climatology and snow distribution
- 3 Snowpack condition
- 4 Ground-based snowfall and snowpack measurements
- 5 Remote sensing of the snowpack
- 6 Snowpack energy exchange: basic theory
- 7 Snowpack energy exchange: topographic and forest effects
- 8 Snowfall, snowpack, and meltwater chemistry
- 9 Snowmelt-runoff processes
- 10 Modelling snowmelt runoff
- 11 Snowmelt-Runoff Model (SRM)
- 12 Snowpack management and modifications
- Appendix A Physical constants
- Appendix B Potential solar irradiation theory
- Index
- Plate Section
- References
10 - Modelling snowmelt runoff
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 18 August 2009
Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- Preface
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Snow climatology and snow distribution
- 3 Snowpack condition
- 4 Ground-based snowfall and snowpack measurements
- 5 Remote sensing of the snowpack
- 6 Snowpack energy exchange: basic theory
- 7 Snowpack energy exchange: topographic and forest effects
- 8 Snowfall, snowpack, and meltwater chemistry
- 9 Snowmelt-runoff processes
- 10 Modelling snowmelt runoff
- 11 Snowmelt-Runoff Model (SRM)
- 12 Snowpack management and modifications
- Appendix A Physical constants
- Appendix B Potential solar irradiation theory
- Index
- Plate Section
- References
Summary
Introduction
Hydrologic models used to predict streamflow can be generally classified as either deterministic or stochastic and as either lumped-parameter or distributed (Beven, 2000). Deterministic models predict a single value of streamflow from a given set of input variables, while stochastic models predict a range of possible outcomes based upon the statistical distributions of input variables. Nearly all of the snowmelt models used to continuously predict streamflow from snowmelt are deterministic, but a type of statistical model has been historically used to great advantage to predict seasonal totals of streamflow using measured snowpack and precipitation data each spring. These models are in widespread use in the western United States to forecast spring runoff.
Deterministic models can be further categorized as either lumped-parameter or distributed. Lumped-parameter models consider the entire watershed as a homogeneous unit, while distributed models break the watershed into subunits or grid points based upon a variety of criteria. Early snowmelt models were of the lumped-parameter type, but many distributed-snowmelt modelling studies have been conducted in the past decade. In terms of snowmelt prediction, the lumped-parameter type of model assumes that the snow cover and melt rates are uniform across the entire basin. These so called point-snowmelt models are still in use today and are generally found imbedded in most deterministic, distributed models. Distributed-snowmelt models generally adapt simple point-snowmelt models for conditions that vary from point to point across basins.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Principles of Snow Hydrology , pp. 266 - 305Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2008
References
and (1998). A fast, physically based point snowmelt model for use in distributed applications. Hydrol. Processes, 12, 1809–24.3.0.CO;2-5>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Society of Civil Engineers (1996). Hydrology Handbook, 2nd edn. Manuals and reports on engineering practice 28. New York: ASCE.
(1973). National Weather Service River Forecast System-Snow Accumulation and Ablation Model, NOAA Tech. Memo, NWS-HYDRO-17. US Dept. Commerce, NOAA, NWS.Google Scholar
(1976). A Point Energy and Mass Balance Model of a Snow Cover, NOAA Tech. Rpt. NWS 19. US Dept. Commerce, NOAA, NWS.Google Scholar
, , , , , and (2006). Mountain hydrology of the western United States. Water Resour. Res., 42, W08432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1996). Use of the SHE hydrological modelling system to investigate basin response to snowmelt at Reynolds Creek, Idaho. J. Hydrol., 175, 181–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bathurst, J. C., Wicks, J. M., and O'Connell, P. E. (1995). Chapter 16: the SHE/SHESED basin scale water flow and sediment transport modelling system. In Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology, ed . Highlands Ranch, CO: Water Resources Publications, pp. 563–94.Google Scholar
and (1999). An elevation-dependent snowmelt model for upland Britain. Hydrol. Processes, 13, 1887–903.3.0.CO;2-C>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1976). Snowmelt estimated from energy budget studies. Nordic Hydrol., 7, 3–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2000). Model sophistication in relation to scales in snowmelt runoff modeling. Nordic Hydrol., 31(3/4), 267–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergström, S. (1976). Development and application of a conceptual runoff model for Scandinavian catchments. In Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute Report RHO 7, Norrköping, Sweden.
(1995). Chapter 13: the HBV model. In Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology, ed. . Highlands Ranch, CO: Water Resources Publications, pp. 443–76.Google Scholar
and (1992). An analysis of snow cover patterns in a small alpine catchment. Hydrol. Processes, 6, 99–109.Google Scholar
, , and (1991a). Distributed snowmelt simulations in an alpine catchment: 2. parameter study and model predictions. Water Resour. Res., 27(12), 3181–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (1991b). Distributed snowmelt simulations in an alpine catchment: 1. Model evaluation on the basis of snow cover patterns. Water Resour. Res., 27(12), 3171–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1991c). A spatially distributed snowmelt model for application in alpine terrain. In Snow, Hydrology and Forests in High Alpine Areas, IAHS Publ. 205, ed. , , , , and , pp. 51–60.Google Scholar
and (1994). Integration of field data into operational snowmelt-runoff models. Nordic Hydrol., 25, 101–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and (1994). Simulation of discharge using different methods of meteorological data distribution, basin discretization and snow modelling. Nordic Hydrol., 25(1/2), 129–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1996). Incorporating radiation inputs into the snowmelt runoff model. Hydrol. Processes, 10, 1329–43.3.0.CO;2-W>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burnash, R. J. C. (1995). Chapter 10: the NWS river forecast system-catchment modeling. In Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology, ed. . Highlands Ranch, CO: Water Resources Publications, pp. 311–66.Google Scholar
and Fontana (1996). Snowmelt modeling by combining air temperature and a distributed radiation index. J. Hydrol., 181, 169–87.Google Scholar
, , , , , , and (2006). Assimilation of snow covered area information into hydrologic and land-surface models. Adv. Water Resour., 29, 1209–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1985). Extended streamflow forecasting using NWSRFS. J. Water Resour. Planning Manag., 111(2), 157–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1992). Influence of avalanche snow transport on snowmelt runoff. J. Hydrol., 137, 73–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeVries, J. J. and Hromadka, T. V. (1992). Chapter 21: Computer models for surface water. In Handbook of Hydrology, ed. . New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.Google Scholar
, , and (2003). Early forecasts of snowmelt runoff using SNOTEL data in the Upper Rio Grande basin. In Proceedings of the 71st Annual Meeting Western Snow Conference, Scottsdale, AZ April 22–25, 2003, pp. 17–22.Google Scholar
, , and (2002). Spatial and temporal variations in snowmelt degree-day factors computed from SNOTEL data in the Upper Rio Grande Basin. In Proceedings of the 70th Annual Meeting of the Western Snow Conference, Granby, CO May 20–23, 2002, pp. 73–81.Google Scholar
, , , and (2006). Evaluation of gridded snow water equivalent and satellite snow cover products for mountain basins in a hydrologic model. Hydrol. Processes, 20, 673–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2003). Snow water equivalent interpolation for the Colorado River Basin from snow telemetry (SNOTEL) data. Water Resour. Res., 39(8), 1208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1983). Brook: A Hydrologic Simulation Model for Eastern Forests. Res. Rpt. 19. Water Resour. Res. Center, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH.Google Scholar
, , and (1972). Snow management seems unlikely in the Northeast. In Proceedings Symposium on Watersheds in Transition, American Water Resources Association, pp. 212–19.Google Scholar
, , , and (1958). Factors Affecting Snowmelt and Streamflow. Washington, DC: United States Goverment Printing Office.Google Scholar
, , , , , and (2000). Snow cover modelling as a tool for climate change assessment in a Swiss alpine catchment. Nordic Hydrol., 31(2), 73–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2000). Simulation of snowmelt in a subarctic spruce woodland: 2. open woodland model. Water Resour. Res., 36(8), 2287–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and (1998). Application of indexed snowmelt algorithms in a northern wetland regime. Hydrol. Processes, 12, 1641–57.3.0.CO;2-W>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (1995). Distributed snowmelt modeling using a clustering algorithm. In Biogoechemistry of Seasonally Snow-Covered Catchments, IAHS, Publ. 228, ed. , and , pp. 167–74.Google Scholar
, , , , , , and . (1999). Simulations of snow distribution and hydrology in a mountain basin. Water Resour. Res., 35(5), 1587–603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1999). A distributed temperature-index ice- and snowmelt model including potential direct solar radiation. J. Glaciol., 45(149), 101–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1997). Physics of the spatially averaged snowmelt process. J. Hydrol., 191, 179–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1994). Application of the ETH snow model to three basins of different character in central Europe. Nordic Hydrol., 25, 113–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (1998). Contribution of snow to the annual water balance in Moshiri Watershed, Northern Hokkaido, Japan. Nordic Hydrol., 29(4/5), 347–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1991). A one-dimensional temperature model for a snow cover, technical documentation for SNTHERM.89. In Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory Special Report 91–16. Hanover, NH: US Army, Corps of Engineers.Google Scholar
, , , and (1991). Snow hydrology of a headwater Arctic basin: 1. Physical measurements and process studies. Water Resour. Res., 27(6), 1099–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (1994). Entering the era of distributed snow models. Nordic Hydrol., 25, 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1980). On the values and variability of degree-day melting factor in Finland. Nordic Hydrol., 11, 235–42.CrossRef
(1961). Protsess tayaniya shezhnogo pokrova (Melting of Snow Cover). Glavnoe Upravlenie Gidrometeorologischeskoi Sluzhby Pri Sovete Ministrov SSSR Gosudarstvennyi Gidrologischeskii Institut. Main Admin. Hydrometeorol. Service, USSR Council Ministers, State Hydrol. Institute. Translated by Israel Program for Scientific Translations. Avail from US Dept. Commerce, National Tech. Inform. Service, 1971, TT 71–50095.Google Scholar
(1969). Aerial photographs for operational streamflow forecasting in the Colorado Rockies. In Proceedings of the 37th Annual Western Snow Conference, April 1969, pp. 19–28.Google Scholar
and (1971). A model for updating streamflow forecasts based upon areal snow cover and a precipitation index. In Proceedings of the 39th Annual Western Snow Conference, April 1971, pp. 9–16.Google Scholar
Leavesley, G. H. and Stannard, L. G. (1995). Chapter 9: The precipitation-runoff modeling system-PRMS. Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology, ed. . Highlands Ranch, CO: Water Resources Publications, pp. 281–310.Google Scholar
Leavesley, G. H. and Striffler, W. E. (1978). A mountain watershed simulation model. In Modeling of Snow Cover Runoff, Conf. Proc., ed. and . Hanover, NH: US Army Corps Engineers, pp. 379–86.Google Scholar
, , , and (2001). A modular approach to addressing model design, scale, and parameter estimation issues in distributed hydrological modeling. Hydrol. Processes, 16(2), 173–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (1983). Precipitation-Runoff Modeling System: User's Manual. Water Resour. Invest. Rpt. 83–4238. US Dept. Interior, Geological Survey.Google Scholar
and (1998). A snow-transport model for complex terrain. J. Glaciol., 44(148), 498–516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1999). Distributed simulation of snowcover mass- and energy-balance in the boreal forest. Hydrol. Processes, 13, 2439–52.3.0.CO;2-1>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1999). Sub-grid parameterization of snow distribution for an energy and mass balance snow cover model. Hydrol. Processes, 13, 1921–33.3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRef
, , , , and (1999). A spatially distributed energy balance snowmelt model for application in mountain basins. Hydrol. Processes, 13, 1935–59.3.0.CO;2-C>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (1992). Climate and energy exchange at the snow surface in the alpine region of the Sierra Nevada, 1. meteorological measurements and monitoring. Water Resour. Res., 28(11), 3029–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1960). The degree-day factor for snowmelt-runoff forecasting. In Proceedings General Assembly of Helsinki, Commission on Surface Waters, IASH Publ. 51, pp. 468–77.Google Scholar
Martinec, J. (1976). Chapter 4: Snow and ice. In Facets of Hydrology, ed. . New York: John Wiley and Sons, pp. 85–118.Google Scholar
and (1975). The effect of snow displacement by avalanches on snow melt and runoff. In Snow and Ice Symposium Proceedings, IAHS-AISH Publ. 104, August 1971 Moscow, Russia, pp. 364–77.Google Scholar
and (1989). Merits of statistical criteria for the performance of hydrological models. Water Resour. Bull., 25(2), 421–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1991). Indirect evaluation of snow reserves in mountain basins. In Snow, Hydrology and Forests in High Alpine Areas, IAHS Publ. 205, ed , , , and , pp. 111–19.Google Scholar
, , and (1998). Snowmelt Runoff Model (SRM) User's Manual. In Geographica Bernisia Series P, no. 35, ed. and , University of Berne.Google Scholar
and (1991). Snowmelt runoff forecasting: case study of Karadj reservoir, Iran. In Snow, Hydrology and Forests in High Alpine Areas, IAHS, Publ. No. 205, ed. , , , and , pp. 213–20.Google Scholar
, , , and (2006). Use of satellite data for streamflow and reservoir storage forecasts in the Snake River basin, ID. J. Water Resour. Planning Manag, 132, 97–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1998). A statistical model of spatially distributed snowmelt rates in a boreal forest basin. Hydrol. Processes, 12, 1701–22.3.0.CO;2-D>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1998). Application of the SRM using multiple parameter landscape zones on the Towanda Creek Basin, Pennsylvania. J. Amer. Water Resour. Assoc., 34(2), 335–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (2005). Estimating the spatial distribution of snow water equivalent in an alpine basin using binary regression tree models: the impact of digital elevation data and independent variable selection. Hydrol. Processes, 19, 1459–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1993). Application of a conceptual streamflow model in a glacierized drainage basin. J. Hydrol., 150, 151–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1982). Sensitivity of the European hydrological system snow models. In Proceedings Symposium on Hydrological Aspects of Alpine and High-Mountain Areas, IAHS Publ. 138, pp. 221–31.Google Scholar
, , and (1993). The prairie blowing snow model: characteristics, validation and operation. J. Hydrol., 144, 165–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1994). Model accuracy in snowmelt-runoff forecasts extending from 1–20 days. Water Resour. Bull., 30(3), 463–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1996). Spaceborne remote sensing for snow hydrology applications. Hydrol. Sci. J., 41, 477–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1991). A physically based approach to modelling distributed snowmelt in a small alpine catchment. In Snow, Hydrology and Forests in High Alpine Areas, IAHS, Publ. 205, ed. , , , , and , pp. 141–50.Google Scholar
, , and (1996). A simple monthly runoff model for snow dominated catchments in the Western Himalayas. Nordic Hydrol., 27(4), 255–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Refsgaard, J. C. and Storm, B. (1995). Chapter 23-MIKE SHE. In Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology, ed. Singh. Highlands Ranch, CO: Water Resources Publications, pp. 809–46.Google Scholar
and (2004). Updating a land surface model with MODIS-derived snow cover. J. Hydrometeorol., 5, 1064–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1994). Long-term records of the snow cover water equivalent in the Swiss Alps-2. Simulation. Nordic Hydrol., 25(1/2), 65–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (1999). Distributed mapping of snow and glaciers for improved runoff modelling. Hydrol. Processes, 13, (12/13), 2023–32.3.0.CO;2-A>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1995). Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology. Highlands Ranch, CO: Water Resources Publications.Google Scholar
Speers, D. D. (1995). Chapter 11: SSARR model. In Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology, ed. . Highlands Ranch, CO: Water Resources Publications, pp. 367–94.Google Scholar
(1993). Estimation of snowmelt runoff in Himalayan catchments incorporating remote sensing data. In Snow and Glacier Hydrology, IAHS Publ. 218, ed. , pp. 69–74.Google Scholar
, , and (1999). Use of remote sensing to test and update simulated snow cover in hydrologic models. Hydrol. Processes, 13, 2067–77.3.0.CO;2-X>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (1994). Distributed snow cover model for a mountainous basin. In Snow and Ice Covers: Interactions with the Atmosphere and Ecosystems, IAHS Publ. 223, ed. , , , and , pp. 153–62.Google Scholar
United States Army Corp of Engineers (1956). Snow Hydrology, Summary Report of the Snow Investigations. Portland, OR: N. Pacific Div., COE.
and (1999). The ABC's of snowmelt: a topographically factorized energy component snowmelt model. Hydrol. Processes, 13, 1905–20.3.0.CO;2-#>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (1971). Simulation of daily snow water equivalent and melt. Proceedings Western Snow Conference, Billings, MT, Vol. 39, pp. 3–8.Google Scholar
, , and (2002). Spatial snow modeling of wind-redistributed snow using terrain-based parameters. J. Hydrometeorol., 3(5), 524–38.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Meteorological Organization (1986). Intercomparison of Models of Snowmelt Runoff, Operational Hydrol. Rpt. 23, No. 646, Geneva: WMO.
World Meteorological Organization (1992). Simulated Real-Time Intercomparison of Hydrological Models, Operational Hydrol. Rpt. 38, WMO-No. 779, Geneva: WMO.
- 4
- Cited by