Introduction

Over the past three decades, gender-based violence (GBV) has emerged as a primary threat to health and human rights globally. GBV is defined as types of violence that primarily women and girls experience, including physical violence (for example, being hit, punched, kicked, slapped, choked, hurt with a weapon, or otherwise physically hurt), sexual violence (for example, unprotected forced sex and coercive behaviors, which include sexual slavery and coerced abortion), and psychological harm (for example, controlling behaviors, stalking, threats of violence). Intimate partners, members of the woman or girl's family, acquaintances, and/or strangers perpetrate these acts of violence, in the home, community, and/or during armed conflict.

Globally, an estimated 35% of women experience physical and/or sexual violence in their lifetime, including partner and non-partner violence (Bott et al., 2012; World Health Organization, 2013a). GBV confers profound health consequences, including physical, sexual, and mental health issues and homicide (Campbell, 2002; Decker et al., 2005; Ellsberg et al., 2008; Hathaway et al., 2000; Jewkes et al., 2010; Seth et al., 2010; Silverman et al., 2008; Stockl et al., 2013). Refugees fleeing conflicts and natural disasters are vulnerable to sexual violence; in humanitarian emergencies, refugee and displaced women and girls experience GBV within the context of war or conflict, during transit and displacement, and in the camp/settlement setting. Loss of secure housing, limited economic opportunities, lack of security, and family disruption among conflict-affected populations enable opportunistic violence as well as intimate partner violence (IPV) (Wirtz et al., 2016). A recent systematic review and meta-analysis of GBV among female refugees in complex humanitarian emergencies generated a pooled estimate of 21.4% (95%CI: 14.9–29.7%) sexual violence prevalence (Vu et al., 2013). There is substantial evidence indicating underreporting of GBV globally (Palermo et al., 2013) as well as in diverse humanitarian settings, where women and girls can be particularly vulnerable (Palermo & Peterman, 2011; Wirtz et al., 2013).

Global efforts often focus on a range of GBV perpetrators. Within the US, as elsewhere, intimate partners are the dominant perpetrators of GBV (Black et al., 2011), hence the domestic focus on IPV. In the US, an estimated one in three women experience IPV—that is, physical or sexual violence by a current or former spouse or boyfriend—with youth and young adult women at highest risk (Black et al., 2011). Gender differences persist in the nature and impact of IPV.