Abstract

A life-span theory of control (J. Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995) is presented along with a set of empirical findings on the theory's implications for developmental regulation. Human behavior in general and human development in particular have to fulfill two fundamental requirements. Investment of behavioral resources (time, effort, skill, motivation) has to be selective, and inevitable failure experiences need to be compensated to protect motivational resources for action. The life-span theory of control distinguishes between primary control and secondary control. Primary control is directed at the external world and refers to attempts to change the environment in line with the individual's goals. Secondary control addresses internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, to maintain, and to expand existing levels of primary control. Both primary and secondary control processes serve to achieve selectivity in resource investment and the compensation of failure. Thus, four strategies of developmental regulation can be identified: selective primary control, compensatory primary control, selective secondary control, and compensatory secondary control. These four strategies are regulated by a higher-order process that aims at optimizing primary control across the life span. At different points in the life span, developmental regulation has to be adapted to shifting levels of primary control potential across age-related changes. Moreover, different socioeconomic life ecologies provide structures of opportunities and constraints, which the individual has to take into account for successful regulation of development.