INTRODUCTION

Most of the discussion on the nexus between migration and citizenship has focused on trends and practices in Western countries. This chapter will examine some tendencies in selected Asian countries which have been affected by migration. This focus aims to contribute to the discussion on citizenship as Asia presents some specific realities. Firstly, unlike the historical linkage to the post-Westphalian idea of the nation-state, the long colonial legacy in Asia and the rise of the nation-state in the post-colonial period de-linked the development of citizenship from the long process of “forgetting” which was part of the evolution of the nation-state in the Western experience. Many Asian countries were still in the process of consolidating the nation-state project when large-scale, organized labour migration started in the 1970s. Migration, thus, complicated questions concerning citizenship for countries of origin and destination, but especially so for the latter. Secondly, the specific migration system that developed in some Asian countries, which is premised on keeping migration temporary, rules out settlement, family reunification and long-term integration, including acquisition of citizenship, for less skilled migrants.

Despite the insistence on temporary labour migration, some settlement is taking place in the receiving countries in the Asian region. Also, some states (especially among the origin countries) are extending the right to vote and of dual citizenship — partly upon the urging of transnational communities and in recognition of the benefits of engaging with these communities — to their nationals working and/or living in other countries. In the face of continuing migration and de facto settlement, the state in receiving countries has responded reluctantly to these processes or has introduced further restrictions. The state in origin countries, on the other hand, can be seen to be playing a more active role vis-à-vis their diaspora populations, although the role of transnational communities is also significant.

This chapter addresses three questions: (1) How is migration in Asia redefining state conceptions of citizenship? (2) How accessible is the acquisition of citizenship to migrants in Asian countries? (3) What alternative pathways are available in the Asian context for migrants’ incorporation in countries of destination? A brief discussion of the debate on citizenship is necessary before turning to discussing these questions.