THE CONSULAR SERVICE

AT THE TIME of the ‘opening’ of Japan in the 1850s, Britain had three consular services. The general service operated in most of the world. Older and better regarded was the Levant Service, covering parts of the near and middle east. Its staff were systematically recruited, properly paid, exercised jurisdiction over their countrymen, and some at least were expected to know the local languages. The China Consular Service that emerged in the 1840s resembled the Levant Service rather than the general service. The 1842 Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) opened five ports for trade and residence, with a consulate at each. The need for efficient communication led to a professional Chinese-speaking consular service. By 1858, the China Service had developed a structure that would survive until the 1940s. Senior positions in the Service were no longer filled by missionaries and other outsiders with a knowledge of the language but by officers who qualified as interpreters; there were proper salaries and allowances during an officer's employment and a pension at the end; and the rules against trading were strictly enforced. This was the model for the Japan Service.

In the early years in China, the availability of missionaries and others filled the gap until a professional cadre could be trained. Japan had remained more isolated, however, and there were few Westerners who had any knowledge of the language. The person with probably the best Japanese was based in the Ryūkyū Islands, but seemed to be unhinged by the mid–1850s. Members of the China Consular Service studied Japanese but the only one who had made real progress died in 1851. Harry Parkes, later minister in Tokyo, had tried but had not advanced far.

From the start, therefore, it was assumed that there would be a need to train language staff . In preparation for the opening of Japan to foreign residence, several university colleges were approached in 1854 for nominations. Those selected went to Hong Kong as ‘supernumerary interpreters’. It is not clear if any went to Japan. Instead A J. Gower, private secretary to Sir John Bowring, the Superintendent of the China Trade, was assigned to Japan as it was understand that he had ‘ … directed his attention to Japanese’.