These are hard times for manufacturers in developing countries, particularly for countries that are “not-China.” Since the 1970s, more and more Asian, Latin American, and Middle Eastern countries have staked their industrial development strategies on exports of low-value-added manufactures such as apparel, making competition for world market share especially fierce. In the 1980s and 1990s, many countries were obliged to dismantle protectionist trade policies as part of structural adjustment programs (SAPs) and international trade agreements, threatening domestic manufacturing bases and pressuring local firms, business associations, and governments to find viable ways to promote industrial upgrading in an open economy.