Abbe, A. & Gouge, M. 2012. Cultural training for military personnel. Military Review, 92(4): 9–17.Google Scholar

Abdul Malek, M., Budhwar, P., & Reiche, B. S. 2015. Sources of support and expatriation: a multiple stakeholder perspective of expatriate adjustment and performance in Malaysia. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(2): 258–276.Google Scholar

Anderson, B. 2005. Expatriate selection: good management or good luck? International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(4): 567–583.Google Scholar

Andreason, A. W. 2008. Expatriate adjustment of spouses and expatriate managers: an integrative research review. International Journal of Management, 25: 382–393.Google Scholar

Ashamalla, M. 1998. International human resources practices: the challenge of expatriation. Competitiveness Review, 8(2): 54–65.Google Scholar

Avril, A. B. & Magnini, V. P. 2007. A holistic approach to expatriate success, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 19 (1): 53–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bennett, J. M. 1986. Modes of cross-cultural training: conceptualizing cross-cultural training as education. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10: 117–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bhaskar-Shrinivas, P, Harrison, DA, Shaffer, MA., & Luk, DM. 2005. Input-based and time-based models of international adjustment: meta-analytic evidence and theoretical extensions. The Academy of Management Journal, 48(2): 257–281.Google Scholar

Black, J. S. & Mendenhall, M. 1990. Cross-cultural training effectiveness: a review and a theoretical framework for future research. Academy of Management Review, 15(1): 113–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Black, J. S. & Gregersen, H. B. 1991. Antecedents to cross-cultural adjustment for expatriates in Pacific Rim assignments. Human Relations, 44(5): 497–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brislin, R. W. 1979. Orientation programs for cross-cultural preparation. Perspectives on Cross-cultural Psychology: 287–304.Google Scholar

Brookfield, 2015. Global mobility trends survey. Brookfield Global Relocation Services 2015. https://docplayer.net/15337612–2015-global-mobility-trends-survey-report-mindful-mobility.html.Google Scholar

Brookfield. 2016. Global mobility trends survey. Brookfield Global Relocation Services 2016. http://globalmobilitytrends.bgrs.com/.Google Scholar

Caligiuri, P., Tarique, I., & Jacobs, R. 2009, Selection for international assignments. Human Resource Management Review, 19(3): 252–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Campoy, E., Waxin, M., Davoine, E., Charles-Pauvers, B., Commeiras, N., & Goudarzi, K. 2005. La socialisation organisationnelle en contexte. In Delobbe, N., Herrbach, O., Lacaze, D. & Mignonac, K. (eds.), Comportement organisationnel, Vol. 1 : Contrat psychologique, émotions au travail, socialisation organisationnelle, De Boeck : 341–393. Bruxelles.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Carraher, S. M., Sullivan, S. E., & Crocitto, M. M. 2008. Mentoring across global boundaries: an empirical examination of home- and host-country mentors on expatriate career outcomes. Journal of International Business Studies, 39: 1310–1326.Google Scholar

Cerdin, J-L., Chandon, J-L. & Waxin, M-F. 1999. The adaptability of the French expatriates, a confirmatory analysis, September, 1999. Centre d’études et de Recherche sur les Organisations et la Gestion CEROG: WP 575. IAE Aix-en-Provence: France.Google Scholar

Cerdin, J-L. & Brewster, C. 2014. Talent management and expatriation: bridging two streams of research and practice Journal of World Business 49 (2): 245–252.Google Scholar

Cheng, H. L. & Lin, C. Y. Y. 2009. Do as the large enterprises do? Expatriate selection and overseas performance in emerging markets: the case of Taiwan SMEs. International Business Review, 18(1): 60–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cole, N. D. 2011. Managing global talent: solving the spousal adjustment problem. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(07): 1504–1530.Google Scholar

Collings, D. G. 2014. Integrating global mobility and talent management: exploring the challenges and strategic opportunities. Journal of World Business, 49(2): 253–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Collins, C. J. & Kehoe, R. R. 2009. Recruitment and selection. In Storey, J., Wright, P. M., & Ulrich, D. (eds.), The Routledge Companion to Strategic Human Resource Management: 209–223. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Culpan, O. & Wright, G. H. 2002. Women abroad: getting the best results from women managers. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13(5): 784–801.Google Scholar

Dickmann, M., Doherty, N., Mills, T., & Brewster, C. 2008. Why do they go? Individual and corporate perspectives on the factors influencing the decision to accept an international assignment. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(4): 731–751.Google Scholar

Doherty, N., Dickmann, M., & Mills, T. 2011. Exploring the motives of company-backed and self-initiated expatriates International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(3): 595–611.Google Scholar

Dupuis, M. J., Haines, V. Y. III, & Saba, T. 2008. Gender, family ties, and international mobility: cultural distance matters. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(2): 274–295.Google Scholar

de Eccher, U. & Duarte, H. 2018. How images about emerging economies influence the willingness to accept expatriate assignments. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 29(4): 637–663.Google Scholar

Edström, A. & Galbraith, J. 1977. Transfer of managers as a coordination and control strategy in multinational organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 22(2): 248–263.Google Scholar

Feitosa, J., Kreutzer, C., Kramperth, A., Kramer, W. S., & Salas, E. 2014. Expatriate adjustment: considerations for selection and training. Journal of Global Mobility, 2(2): 134–159.Google Scholar

Fenner Jr., C. R. & Selmer, J. 2008. Public sector expatriate managers: psychological adjustment, personal characteristics and job factors. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(7): 1237–1252.Google Scholar

Finn, L. & Morley, M. 2002. Expatriate selection: The case of an Irish multinational. In Linehan, M., Morley, M., & Walsh., J. (eds.), International Human Resource Management and Expatriate Tranfers: 101–131. Dublin, Ireland: Irish Experiences, Blackhall Press.Google Scholar

Froese, F. J., Jommersbach, S., & Klautsch, E. 2013. Cosmopolitan career choices: a cross-cultural study of job candidates’ expatriation willingness. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24 (17): 3247–3261.Google Scholar

Furusawa, M. & Brewster, C. 2018. Japanese self‐initiated expatriates as boundary spanners in Chinese subsidiaries of Japanese MNEs: antecedents, social capital, and HRM practices. Thunderbird International Business Review, 60(6), 911–919.Google Scholar

Gertsen, M. C. 1990. Intercultural competence and expatriates. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 1(3): 341–362.Google Scholar

Green, J. M. 2012. The relationship between adjustment and personal and work variables among American government employees and their spouses stationed abroad. Dissertation, Northcentral University, Graduate Faculty of the School of Behavioral and Health Sciences, Prescott Valley.Google Scholar

Gudykunst, W. B., Guzley, R. M., & Hammer, M. R. 1996. Designing intercultural training. In Landis, D. and Bahgat, R. S. (eds.), Handbook of Intercultural Training. Thousand Oaks: Sage.Google Scholar

Gupta, R., Banerjee, P., & Gaur, J. 2012. Exploring the role of the spouse in expatriate failure: a grounded theory-based investigation of expatriate’s spouse adjustment issues from India. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(17): 3559–3577.Google Scholar

Haak-Saheem, W. & Brewster, C. 2017. ‘Hidden’ expatriates: international mobility in the United Arab Emirates as a challenge to current understanding of expatriation. Human Resource Management Journal, 27(3): 423–439.Google Scholar

Harris, H. & Brewster, C. 1999. The coffee machine system: how international selection really works. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 10(3): 488–500.Google Scholar

Harrison, D. A. & Shaffer, M. A. 2005. Mapping the criterion space for expatriate success: task- and relationship-based performance, effort and adaptation. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(8): 1454–1474.Google Scholar

Haslberger, A. & Brewster, C. 2008. The expatriate family: an international perspective. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23(3): 324–346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Honley, S. A. 2005. Focus on FSI/FS training: FSI settles into Arlington Hall. Foreign Service Journal, Jul-Aug, 17–31.Google Scholar

Hyder, A. S. & Lövblad, M. 2007. The repatriation process–a realistic approach. Career Development International, 12(3): 264–281.Google Scholar

Jassawalla, A., Asgary, N., & Sashittal, H. 2006. Managing expatriates: the role of mentors. International Journal of Commerce and Management, 16(2): 130–140.Google Scholar

Kealey, D. J. & Protheroe, D. R. 1996. The effectiveness of cross-cultural training for expatriates: an assessment of the literature on the issue. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20(2):141–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kim, C., Brewster, C., & Chung, C. 2019. Beyond nationality: international experience as a key dimension for subsidiary staffing choices in MNEs? Journal of Global Mobility 7 (3): 269–284.Google Scholar

Kim, J. & Froese, F. J. 2012. Expatriation willingness in Asia: the importance of host-country characteristics and employees’ role commitments. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23 (16): 3414–3433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

KPMG. 2019. Global assignment policies and practices survey. https://home.kpmg/xx/en/home/insights/2016/10/global-assignment-policies-and-practices-survey-2016.html, Accessed on 27 November 2019.Google Scholar

Lazarova, M. B. & Cerdin, J. L. 2007. Revisiting repatriation concerns: organizational support versus career and contextual influences. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(3): 404–429.Google Scholar

Linehan, M., Morley, M., & Walsh, J. (eds.). 2002. International Human Resource Management and Expatriate Transfers: Irish Experiences, Dublin, Blackhall: 108–109.Google Scholar

Ling, E. Z. & Harzing, A.-W. 2017. Language as a local practice: why English as a corporate language won’t work in China. European Academy of Management (EURAM) Conference, 21–24 June, Glasgow, Scotland.Google Scholar

Littrell, L. N. & Salas, E. 2005. A review of cross-cultural training: best practices, guidelines, and research needs. Human Resource Development Review, 4(3): 305–334.Google Scholar

Littrell, L. N., Salas, E., Hess, K. P., Paley, M., & Riedel, S. 2006. Expatriate preparation: a critical analysis of 25 years of cross-cultural training research. Human Resource Development Review, 5(3): 355–388.Google Scholar

Marchon, J. 2004. Expatriation management: Theoretical principles and practices in suiss-based multinational companies. Master’s thesis, Economics and Social Sciences Faculty, University of Fribourg, Switzerland.Google Scholar

McNulty, Y. 2012. Being dumped in to sink or swim: an empirical study of organizational support for the trailing spouse. Human Resource Development International, 15(4): 41–434.Google Scholar

McNulty, Y. & Brewster, C. 2018. Management of (business) expatriates. In Organizational Behaviour and Human Resource Management: 109–137. Springer, Cham.Google Scholar

McNulty, Y. & Brewster, C. 2019. Working Internationally: Expatriation, Migration and Other Global Work, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar.Google Scholar

Mendenhall, M. & Oddou, G. 1985. The dimensions of expatriate acculturation. Academy of Management Review, 10; 39–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mercer, , 2015. Worldwide Survey of International Assignment Policies and Practices. Mercer. www.mercer.com. Accessed 20 September 2019.Google Scholar

Merignac, O. & Roger, A. 2012. Comprendre les préoccupations du conjoint qui doit suivre un expatrié à l’étranger. Gestion, 37 (2): 23–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mol, S. T., Born, M. P., Willemsen, M. E., & Van der Molen, H. T. 2005. Predicting expatriate job performance for selection purposes: a quantitative review. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36(5): 590–620.Google Scholar

Mol, S. T., Born, M. P., Willemsen, M. E., Henk, T. V. D. M., & Derous, E. 2009. When selection ratios are high: predicting the expatriation willingness of prospective domestic entry-level job applicants, Human Performance, 22(1): 1–22.Google Scholar

Morey, S. & Waxin, M-F. 2008. Le développement managérial à l’international. In Waxin, M.-F. & Barmeyer, C. (eds.), Gestion des Ressources Humaines Internationales 7: 291–334. Paris, France : Éditions de Liaisons.Google Scholar

Morris, M. A. & Robie, C. 2001. A meta‐analysis of the effects of cross‐cultural training on expatriate performance and adjustment. International Journal of Training and Development, 5(2): 112–125.Google Scholar

Osman-Gani, A. M. & Rockstuhl, T. 2009. Cross-cultural training, expatriate self-efficacy, and adjustments to overseas assignments: an empirical investigation of managers in Asia. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(4): 277–290.Google Scholar

Peltokorpi, V., 2008. Cross-cultural adjustment of expatriates in Japan. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(9): 1588–1606.Google Scholar

Peltokorpi, V. & Froese, F. J. 2009. Organizational expatriates and self-initiated expatriates: who adjusts better to work and life in Japan? International Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(5): 1096–1112.Google Scholar

Puck, J. F., Kittler, M. G., & Wright, C., 2008. Does it really work? Re-assessing the impact of pre-departure cross-cultural training on expatriate adjustment. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(12): 2182–2197.Google Scholar

Reiche, B., Harzing., A-W., & Kraimer, M. 2009. The role of international assignees’ social capital in creating inter-unit intellectual capital: a cross-level model. Journal of International Business Studies, 40(3): 509–526.Google Scholar

Richardson, J. & McKenna, S. 2002. Leaving and experiencing: why academics expatriate and how they experience expatriation. Career Development International, 7(2): 67–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Shen, J. & Lang, B. 2009. Cross-cultural training and its impact on expatriate performance in Australian MNEs. Human Resource Development International. 12(4): 371–386.Google Scholar

Simeon, R. & Fujiu, K. 2000. Cross-cultural adjustment strategies of Japanese spouses in Silicon Valley. Employee Relations, 22(6): 594–611.Google Scholar

Stahl, G., Miller, D. J., & Tung, R. L. 2002. Towards the boundaryless career: a closer look at the expatriate career concept and the perceived implications of an international assignment. Journal of World Business, 37(3): 216–227.Google Scholar

Tarique, I. & Schuler, R. S. 2010. Global talent management: literature review, integrative framework, and suggestions for further research. Journal of World Business, 45(2): 122–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Tharenou, P. 2008.Disruptive decisions to leave home: gender and family differences in expatriation choices. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 105(2): 183–200.Google Scholar

Trochowska, K., 2014. International experiences in the operationalization of culture for military operations–field research results. Connections, 13(3): 83–104.Google Scholar

Tungli, Z. & Peiperl, M. 2009. Expatriate practices in German, Japanese, UK, and US multinational companies: a comparative survey of changes.Human Resource Management: 48(1), 153–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Wankel, C. 2016. Developing cross-cultural managerial skills through social media. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 29(1), 116–124.Google Scholar

Waxin, M-F. 2000. L’adaptation des cadres expatriés en Inde: Ses déterminants et l’effet de la culture d’origine, Thèse de doctorat, Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Université Aix-Marseille III, IAE Aix-en-Provence, France.Google Scholar

Waxin, M-F. 2006. The effect of culture of origin on the adjustment process. In Morley, M., Heraty, N. & Collings, D. (eds.), New Directions in Expatriate Research: 120–142. London, England: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Waxin, M-F. 2007. Strategic HRM management of international assignments”, in Katsioloudes, M. & Hadjidakis, S. (eds.), International Business, 12: 387–438. London: Elsevier.Google Scholar

Waxin, M-F. 2008a. La gestion stratégique des affectations internationales. In Waxin, M-F. & Barmeyer, C. (eds.), Gestion des Ressources Humaines Internationales, problématiques, stratégies et pratiques (3): 103–146. Paris, France: Éditions de Liaisons.Google Scholar

Waxin, M-F. 2008b. Le recrutement et la sélection à l’international. In Waxin, M-F. & Barmeyer, C. (eds.), Gestion des Ressources Humaines Internationales, problématiques, stratégies et pratiques (4): 151–204. Paris, France: Éditions de Liaisons.Google Scholar

Waxin, M-F. & Brewster, C. 2018. Public sector expatriation. In Farazmand, A. (ed.), Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance: 41–49. Springer International Publishing Switzerland.Google Scholar

Waxin, M-F. & Brewster, C. 2020. The impact of host country characteristics on SIEs’ career success. In Andresen, M., Brewster, C., & Suutari, V. (eds.), Mastering the Context of Self-Initiated Expatriates’ Careers: Recognizing Space, Time and Institutions (3). London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Waxin, M-F. & Chandon, J-L. 2002. L’adaptation à l´interaction des expatriés en Inde, Revue Internationale de Gestion, 27 (1), 56–64.Google Scholar

Waxin, M-F. & Panaccio, A. J. 2005. Cross-cultural training to facilitate expatriate adjustment: it works! Personnel Review, 34 (1): 51–67.Google Scholar

Waxin, M-F., Brewster, C., Ashill, N., & Chandon, J-L. 2016. The impact of expatriates’ home country culture on their time to proficiency: empirical evidence from the Indian context. Journal of Developing Areas, 50(4): 401–422.Google Scholar

Waxin, M-F., Brewster, C. & Ashill, N. 2019. Expatriate time to proficiency: individual antecedents and the moderating effect of home country, Journal of Global Mobility, doi:10.1108/JGM-12-2018-0060.Google Scholar

Webb, A. 1996. The expatriate experience: implications for career success. Career Development International, 1(5): 38–44.Google Scholar

Ang, S. & Van Dyne, L. 2015. Handbook of Cultural Intelligence. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar

Armstrong, S. J. & Yan, L. 2017. A study of Anglo expatriate managers’ learning, knowledge acquisition, and adjustment in multinational companies in China. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 16(1): 1–22.Google Scholar

Bayraktar, S. 2019. A diary study of expatriate adjustment: collaborative mechanisms of social support. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 19(1): 47–70.Google Scholar

Bhaskar-Shrinivas, P., Harrison, D. A., Shaffer, M. A., & Luk, D. M. 2005. Input-based and time-based models of international adjustment: meta-analytic evidence and theoretical extensions. Academy of Management Journal, 48(2): 257–281.Google Scholar

Black, S. J. 1988. Work role transitions: a study of American expatriate managers in Japan. Journal of International Business Studies, 19(2): 277–294.Google Scholar

Black, S. J. & Gregersen, H. B. 1991. The other half of the picture: antecedents of spouse cross-cultural adjustment. Journal of International Business Studies, 22(3): 461–477.Google Scholar

Black, S. J., Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. 1991. Toward a comprehensive model of international adjustment: an integration of multiple theoretical perspectives. Academy of Management Review, 16(2): 291–317.Google Scholar

Bonache, J., Langinier, H. & Zárraga-Oberty, C. 2016. Antecedents and effects of host country nationals negative stereotyping of corporate expatriates. A social identity analysis. Human Resource Management Review, 26(1): 59–68.Google Scholar

Buechele, J. 2018. ‘We live a life in periods’: perceptions of mobility and becoming an expat spouse. Migration Letters, 15(1): 45–54.Google Scholar

Bücker, J., Furrer, O., Poutsma, E., & Buyens, D. 2014. The impact of cultural intelligence on communication effectiveness, job satisfaction and anxiety for Chinese host country managers working for foreign multinationals. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(14): 2068–2087.Google Scholar

Carlson, D., Kacmar, K., Thompson, M., & Andrews, M. 2019. Looking good and doing good: family to work spillover through impression management. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 34(1): 31–45.Google Scholar

Chen, Y.-P. & Shaffer, M. 2018. The influence of expatriate spouses’ coping strategies on expatriate and spouse adjustment. Journal of Global Mobility, 6(1): 20–39.Google Scholar

Cho, T., Hutchings, K., & Marchant, T. 2013. Key factors influencing Korean expatriates’ and spouses’ perceptions of expatriation and repatriation. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24(5): 1051–1075.Google Scholar

Church, A. T. 1982. Sojourner Adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 91(3): 540–572.Google Scholar

Claus, L., Maletz, S., Casoinic, D., & Pierson, K. 2015. Social capital and cultural adjustment of international assignees in NGOs: do support networks really matter? International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(20): 2523–2542.Google Scholar

Cole, N. 2011. Managing global talent: solving the spousal adjustment problem. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(7): 1504–1530.Google Scholar

Dabic, M., González-Loureiro, M., & Harvey, M. G. 2015. Evolving research on expatriates: what is ‘known’ after four decades (1970–2012). International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(3): 316–337.Google Scholar

David, K. H. 1972. Intercultural Adjustment and Applications of Reinforcement Theory to Problems of ‘Culture Dhock’. Hilo: Center for Cross-Cultural Training and Research. University of Hawaii at Hilo.Google Scholar

Davies, S., Kraeh, A., & Froese, F. 2015. Burden or support? The influence of partner nationality on expatriate cross-cultural adjustment. Journal of Global Mobility, 3(2): 169–182.Google Scholar

Dawis, R. V. & Lofquist, L. H. 1984. A Psychological Theory of Work Adjustment. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar

Dickmann, M., Suutari, V., Brewster, C., Mäkelä, L., Tanskanen, J. & Tornikoski, C. 2016. The career competencies of self-initiated and assigned expatriates: assessing the development of career capital over time. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 29(16): 2353–2371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fisher, K., Hutchings, K., & Pinto, L. H. 2015. Pioneers across war zones: the lived acculturation experiences of US female military expatriates. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 49(Supplement C): 265–277.Google Scholar

Fu, J., Morris, M. W., & Hong, Y. 2015. A transformative taste of home: home culture primes foster expatriates’ adjustment through bolstering relational security. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 59: 24–31.Google Scholar

Gullahorn, J. T. & Gullahorn, J. E. 1963. An extension of the U-curve hypothesis. Journal of Social Issues, 19(3): 33–47.Google Scholar

Gupta, R., Banerjee, P., & Gaur, J. 2012. Exploring the role of the spouse in expatriate failure: a grounded theory-based investigation of expatriate’ spouse adjustment issues from India. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(17): 3559–3577.Google Scholar

Haak-Saheem, W. & Brewster, C. 2017. ‘Hidden’ expatriates: international mobility in the United Arab Emirates as a challenge to current understanding of expatriation. Human Resource Management Journal, 27(3): 423–439.Google Scholar

Haslberger, A. & Brewster, C. 2008. The expatriate family: an international perspective. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23(3): 324–346.Google Scholar

Haslberger, A., Brewster, C., & Hippler, T. 2013. The dimensions of expatriate adjustment. Human Resource Management, 52(3): 333–351.Google Scholar

Haslberger, A., Brewster, C., & Hippler, T. 2014. Managing Performance Abroad: A New Model for Understanding Expatriate Adjustment. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Haslberger, A. & Dickmann, M. 2016. The correspondence model of cross-cultural adjustment: exploring exchange relationships. Journal of Global Mobility, 4(3): 276–299.Google Scholar

Harari, M. B., Reaves, A. C., Beane, D. A., Laginess, A. J., & Viswesvaran, C. 2018. Personality and expatriate adjustment: a meta analysis. Journal of Occupational & Organisational Psychology, 91(3): 486–517.Google Scholar

Hechanova, R., Beehr, T. A., & Christiansen, N. D. 2003. Antecedents and consequences of employees’ adjustment to overseas assignment: a meta–analytic review. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 52(2): 213–236.Google Scholar

Hemmasi, M., Downes, M., & Varner, I. I. 2010. An empirically-derived multidimensional measure of expatriate success: reconciling the discord. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21(7): 982–998.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hemmasi, M. & Downes, M. 2013. Cultural distance and expatriate adjustment revisited. Journal of Global Mobility, 1(1): 72–91.Google Scholar

Hippler, T. 2000. European assignments: international or quasi-domestic? Journal of European Industrial Training, 24(9): 491–504.Google Scholar

Hippler, T., Caligiuri, P., & Johnson, J. 2014a. Revisiting the construct of expatriate adjustment – implications for theory and measurement. International Studies of Management & Organisation, 44(3): 8–24.Google Scholar

Hippler, T., Caligiuri, P. M., Johnson, J. E., & Baytalskaya, N. 2014b. The development and validation of a theory-based expatriate adjustment scale. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(14): 1938–1959.Google Scholar

Hippler, T., Brewster, C., & Haslberger, A. 2015. The elephant in the room: the role of time in expatriate adjustment. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(15): 1920–1935.Google Scholar

Jackson, D. & Manderscheid, S. V. 2015. A phenomenological study of Western expatriates’ adjustment to Saudi Arabia. Human Resource Development International, 18(2): 131–152.Google Scholar

Jing, Z., Wanberg, C. R., Harrison, D. A., Diehn, E. W., & Zhu, J. 2016. Ups and downs of the expatriate experience? Understanding work adjustment trajectories and career outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(4): 549–568.Google Scholar

Kang, H. & Shen, J. 2018. Antecedents and consequences of host-country nationals’ attitudes and behaviors toward expatriates: what we do and do not know. Human Resource Management Review, 28(2): 164–175.Google Scholar

Kim, Y. Y. 2001. Intercultural Transformation. On becoming Intercultural: An Integrative Theory of Communication and Cross-cultural Adaptation: 183–200. Thousand Oaks: Sage.Google Scholar

Kim, Y. Y. & Ruben, B. D. 1988. Intercultural transformation – A systems theory. In Kim, Y. Y. & Gudykunst, W. B. (eds.), Theories in Intercultural Communication: 299–321. Newbury Park: Sage.Google Scholar

Kim, Y. Y. & McKay-Semmler, K. 2013. Social engagement and cross-cultural adaptation: an examination of direct- and mediated interpersonal communication activities of educated non-natives in the United States. International Journal of Intercultural Relation, 37: 99–112.Google Scholar

Krishnaveni, R. & Arthi, R. 2015. An overview of multidimensional factors influencing effective performance of expatriates. Management: Journal of Contemporary Management Issues, 20(2): 135–147.Google Scholar

Lazarova, M. B. & Thomas, D. C. 2012. Expatriate adjustment and performance revisited. In Stahl, G. K., Björkman, I., & Morris, S. (eds.), Handbook of Research in International Human Resource Management: 271–292. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar

Lazarova, M., Westman, M., & Shaffer, M. A. 2010. Elucidating the positive side of the work-family interface on international assignments: a model of expatriate work and family performance. Academy of Management Review, 35(1): 93–117.Google Scholar

Lessle, A. D. 2019. The Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Adjustment of Expatriate Spouses. A case study. PhD dissertation, Grand Canyon University, Phoenix AZ. Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.Google Scholar

Lofquist, L. H. & Dawis, R. V. 1991. Essentials of Person-Environment-Correspondence Counseling. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar

Lorenz, M. P., Ramsey, J. R., & Richey, R. G. 2018. Expatriates’ international opportunity recognition and innovativeness: the role of metacognitive and cognitive cultural intelligence. Journal of World Business, 53(2): 222–236.Google Scholar

Lundstedt, S. 1963. An introduction to some evolving problems in cross-cultural research. Journal of Social Issues, 19(3): 1–9.Google Scholar

Lysgaard, S. 1955. Adjustment in a foreign society: Norwegian Fulbright grantees visiting the United States. International Social Science Bulletin, 7(1): 45–51.Google Scholar

Mahajan, A. & Toh, S. M. 2014. Facilitating expatriate adjustment: the role of advice-seeking from host country nationals. Journal of World Business, 49(4): 476–487.Google Scholar

Maertz, C. P., Takeuchi, R., & Chen, J. 2016. An episodic framework of outgroup interaction processing: integration and redirection for the expatriate adjustment research. Psychological Bulletin, 142(6): 623–654.Google Scholar

Malek, A. M., Budhwar, P., & Reiche, S. B. 2015. Sources of support and expatriation: a multiple stakeholder perspective of expatriate adjustment and performance in Malaysia. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(2): 258–276.Google Scholar

Mao, J. & Shen, Y. 2015. Cultural identity change in expatriates: a social network perspective. Human Relations, 68(10): 1533–1556.Google Scholar

Mayrhofer, W. & Brewster, C. 1996. In Praise of Ethnocentricity: expatriate policies in European multinationals International Executive, 38(6): 749–778.Google Scholar

McNulty, Y. 2012. ‘Being dumped in to sink or swim’: an empirical study of organisational support for the trailing spouse. Human Resource Development International, 15(4): 417–434.Google Scholar

McNulty, Y. & De Cieri, H. D. 2013. Measuring expatriate return on investment with an evaluation framework. Global Business & Organisational Excellence, 32(6): 18–26.Google Scholar

McNulty, Y., Lauring, J., Jonasson, C., & Jan, S. 2019. Highway to hell? Managing expatriates in crisis. Journal of Global Mobility. 10.1108/JGM-10–2018–0054.Google Scholar

McPhail, R. & McNulty, Y. 2015, ‘Oh, the places you won’t go as an LGBT expat!’ A study of HRM’s duty of care to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender expatriates in dangerous locations. European Journal of International Management, 9(6): 737–765.Google Scholar

McPhail, R., Fisher, R., Harvey, M. G., & Moeller, M. 2012. Staffing the global organisation: ‘Cultural nomads’. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 23(2): 259–276.Google Scholar

Moon, H. K., Choi, B. K., & Jung, J. S. 2012. Previous international experience, cross‐cultural training, and expatriates’ cross‐cultural adjustment: effects of cultural intelligence and goal orientation. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 23(3): 285–330.Google Scholar

Navas, M., Garcia, M. C., Sánchez, J., Rojas, A. J., Pumares, P., & Fernández, J. S. 2005. Relative Acculturation Extended Model (RAEM): new contributions with regard to the study of acculturation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29: 21–37.Google Scholar

Nowak, C. & Linder, C. 2016. Do you know how much your expatriate costs? An activity-based cost analysis of expatriation. Journal of Global Mobility, 4(1): 88–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Oberg, K. 1960. Cultural shock: adjustment to new cultural environments. Practical Anthropology, 7(4): 177–182.Google Scholar

Peltokorpi, V. & Froese, F. 2014. Expatriate personality and cultural fit: the moderating role of host country context on job satisfaction. International Business Review, 23(1): 293–302.Google Scholar

Presbitero, A. & Quita, C. 2017. Expatriate career intentions: links to career adaptability and cultural intelligence. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 98: 118–126.Google Scholar

Ramaswami, A., Carter, N. M., & Dreher, G. F. 2016. Expatriation and career success: a human capital perspective. Human Relations, 69(10): 1959–1987.Google Scholar

Ravasi, C., Salamin, X., & Davoine, E. 2015. Cross-cultural adjustment of skilled migrants in a multicultural and multilingual environment: an explorative study of foreign employees and their spouses in the Swiss context. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(10): 1335–1359.Google Scholar

Richardson, C. & Wong, H.-W. 2018. Expatriate academics in Malaysia: motivation, adjustment, and retention. Journal of Management Development, 37(3): 299–308.Google Scholar

Ritchie, W., Brantley, B. I., Pattie, M., Swanson, B., & Logsdon, J. 2015. Expatriate Cultural Antecedents and Outcomes. Nonprofit Management & Leadership, 25(3): 325–342.Google Scholar

Rosenbusch, K. & Cseh, M. 2012. The cross-cultural adjustment process of expatriate families in a multinational organisation: a family system theory perspective. Human Resource Development International, 15(1): 61–77.Google Scholar

Rosenbusch, K., Cerny II, L. J., & Earnest, D. R. 2015. The impact of stressors during international assignments. Cross Cultural Management, 22(3): 405–430.Google Scholar

Salamin, X. & Davoine, E. 2015. International adjustment of female vs male business expatriates. A replication study in Switzerland. Journal of Global Mobility, 3(2): 183–212.Google Scholar

Schütz, A. 1944. The stranger: an essay in social psychology. American Journal of Sociology, 49(6): 499–507.Google Scholar

Schütz, A. 1945. The homecomer. American Journal of Sociology, 50(5): 369–376.Google Scholar

Shaffer, M. A., Harrison, D. A., Gregersen, H. B., Black, S. J., & Ferzandi, L. A. 2006. You can take it with you: individual differences and expatriate effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(1): 109–125.Google Scholar

Shortland, S. 2016. The purpose of expatriation: why women undertake international assignments. Human Resource Management, 55(4): 655–678.Google Scholar

Sousa, C., Gonçalves, G., Santos, J., & Leitão, J. 2017. Organisational practices for the expatriates’ adjustment: a systematic review. Journal of Global Mobility, 5(3): 251–274.Google Scholar

Stahl, G. K. & Caligiuri, P. M. 2005. The effectiveness of expatriate coping strategies: the moderating role of cultural distance, position level, and time on the international assignment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(4): 603–615.Google Scholar

Suutari, V. & Brewster, C. 1999. International assignments across European borders: no problems? In Brewster, C. J. & Harris, H. (eds.), International Human Resource Management: Contemporary Issues in Europe: 183–202. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Suutari, V., Brewster, C., Mäkelä, L., Dickmann, M., & Tornikoski, C. 2017. The effect of international work experience on the career success of expatriates: a comparison of assigned and self-initiated expatriates. Human Resource Management, 57(1): 37–54.Google Scholar

Suutari, V., Tornikoski, C., & Mäkelä, L. 2012. Career decision making of global careerists. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(15–16): 3455–3478.Google Scholar

Takeuchi, R. 2010. A critical review of expatriate adjustment research through a multiple stakeholder view: progress, emerging trends, and prospects. Journal of Management, 36(4): 1040–1064.Google Scholar

Teague, J. 2015. Corporate preparation for the cross-cultural adaptation experience of the accompanying expatriate spouse. Journal of International Business Research, 14(2): 139–151.Google Scholar

Thomas, D. C. & Lazarova, M. 2006. Expatriate adjustment and performance: a critical review. In Stahl, G. K. & Bjorkman, I. (eds.), Handbook of Research in International Human Resource Management. G. K. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar

van Erp, K. J., van der Zee, K. I., Giebels, E., & van Duijn, M. A. 2014. Lean on me: the importance of one’s own and partner’s intercultural personality for expatriate’s and expatriate spouse’s successful adjustment abroad. European Journal of Work and Organisational Psychology, 23(5): 706–728.Google Scholar

Wang, X. 2002. Expatriate adjustment from a social network perspective: theoretical examination and a conceptual model. International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, 2(3): 321–337.Google Scholar

Ward, C. & Searle, W. 1991. The impact of value discrepancies and cultural identity on psychological and sociocultural adjustment of sojourners. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22(3): 209–224.Google Scholar

Ward, C., Leong, C., & Low, M. 2004. Personality and sojourner adjustment: an exploration of the Big Five and the cultural fit proposition. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35(137): 137–151.DOI:10.1177/0022022103260719.Google Scholar

Ward, C., Bochner, S., & Furnham, A. 2001. The Psychology of Culture Shock (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Waxin, M.-F., Brewster, C., Ashill, N., & Chandon, J. 2017. Antecedents of expatriates’ time to proficiency; does home country culture have an effect? Journal of Developing Areas, 50(4): 401–422.Google Scholar

Wechtler, H. 2015. Cross-cultural adjustment of female self-initiated expatriates: a longitudinal diary study. Academy of Management Annual Meeting Proceedings, 2015(1).Google Scholar

Wechtler, H., Koveshnikov, A., & Dejoux, C. 2017. Career Anchors and Cross-Cultural Adjustment Among Expatriates in a Non-Profit Organisation. Management International Review (MIR), 57(2): 277–305.Google Scholar

Wu, P. & Ang, S. 2011. The impact of expatriate supporting practices and cultural intelligence on cross-cultural adjustment and performance of expatriate in Singapore. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(13): 2683–2702.Google Scholar

Wurtz, O. 2018. Expatriation, alcohol and drugs: antecedents and consequences of substance use in expatriation. Journal of Global Mobility, 6 (3/4): 16–334.Google Scholar

Zhu, J., Wanberg, C. R., Harrison, D. A., & Diehn, E. W. 2016. Ups and downs of the expatriate experience? Understanding work adjustment trajectories and career outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(4): 549–568.Google Scholar

Zimmermann, J. & Neyer, F. J. 2013. Do we become a different person when hitting the road? Personality development of sojourners. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 105(3): 515–530.Google Scholar

Aycan, Z. 1997. Expatriate adjustment as a multifaceted phenomenon: individual and organizational level predictors. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8(4): 434–456.Google Scholar

Black, J. S., Mendenhall, M., & Odour, G. 1991. Toward a comprehensive model of international adjustment: an integration of multiple theoretical perspectives. Academy of Management Review, 16(2): 291–317.Google Scholar

Bobko, P. & Colella, A. 1994. Employee reactions to performance standards: a review and research propositions. Personnel Psychology, 47(1): 1–29.Google Scholar

Bossard, A. B. & Peterson, R. B. 2005. The repatriate experience as seen by American expatriates. Journal of World Business, 40(1): 9–28.Google Scholar

Caligiuri, P. & Bonache, J. 2016. Evolving and enduring challenges in global mobility. Journal of World Business, 51(1): 127–141.Google Scholar

Caligiuri, P. M. & Colakoglu, S. 2007. A strategic contingency approach to expatriate assignment management. Human Resource Management Journal, 17(4): 393–410.Google Scholar

Carraher, S. M., Sullivan, S. E., & Crocitto, M. M. 2008. Mentoring across global boundaries: an empirical examination of home-and host-country mentors on expatriate career outcomes. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(8): 1310–1326.Google Scholar

Cerdin, J. L. & Brewster, C. 2014. Talent management and expatriation: bridging two streams of research and practice. Journal of World Business, 49(2): 245–252.Google Scholar

Chang, Y.-Y., Gong, Y., & Peng, M. W. 2012. Expatriate knowledge transfer, subsidiary absorptive capacity, and subsidiary performance. Academy of Management Journal, 55(4): 927–948.Google Scholar

Deming, W. E. 1986. Out of Crisis, Centre for Advanced Engineering Study. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Google Scholar

DeNisi, A. S. & Gonzalez, J. A. 2017. Design performance appraisal systems to improve performance. The Blackwell Handbook of Principles of Organizational Behaviour, 63–75.Google Scholar

DeNisi, A. S. & Murphy, K. R. 2017. Performance appraisal and performance management: 100 years of progress? Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(3): 421.Google Scholar

Fee, A., McGrath-Champ, S., & Yang, X. 2011. Expatriate performance management and firm internationalization: australian multinationals in China. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 49(3): 365–384.Google Scholar

Feldman, D. C. & Bolino, M. C. 1999. The impact of on-site mentoring on expatriate socialization: a structural equation modelling approach. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 10(1): 54–71.Google Scholar

Graen, G. B. & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 219–247.Google Scholar

Hippler, T., Brewster, C., & Haslberger, A. 2015. The elephant in the room: the role of time in expatriate adjustment. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(15): 1920 –1935.Google Scholar

Hofstede, G. 1980. Culture and organizations. International Studies of Management & Organization, 10(4): 15–41.Google Scholar

Kang, H. & Shen, J. 2016. International performance appraisal practices and approaches of South Korean MNEs in China. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 27(3): 291–310.Google Scholar

Kawai, N. & Chung, C. 2019. Expatriate utilization, subsidiary knowledge creation and performance: the moderating role of subsidiary strategic context. Journal of World Business, 54(1): 24–36.Google Scholar

Kim, K. I., Park, H. J., & Suzuki, N. 1990. Reward allocations in the United States, Japan, and Korea: a comparison of individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Academy of Management Journal, 33(1): 188–198.Google Scholar

Kossek, E. E., Huang, J. L., Piszczek, M. M., Fleenor, J. W., & Ruderman, M. 2017. Rating expatriate leader effectiveness in multisource feedback systems: cultural distance and hierarchical effects. Human Resource Management, 56(1): 151–172.Google Scholar

Kraimer, M. L. & Wayne, S. J. 2004. An examination of perceived organizational support as a multidimensional construct in the context of an expatriate assignment. Journal of Management, 30(2): 209–237.Google Scholar

Kraimer, M. L., Wayne, S. J., & Jaworski, R. A. A. 2001. Sources of support and expatriate performance: the mediating role of expatriate adjustment. Personnel Psychology, 54(1): 71–99.Google Scholar

Liu, X. & Shaffer, M. A. 2005. An investigation of expatriate adjustment and performance. A social capital perspective. International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, 5(3): 235–253.Google Scholar

Malek, M. A. & Budhwar, P. 2013. Cultural intelligence as a predictor of expatriate adjustment and performance in Malaysia. Journal of World Business, 48(2): 222–231.Google Scholar

Martin, D. C. & Bartol, K. M. 2003. Factors influencing expatriate performance appraisal system success: an organizational perspective. Journal of International management, 9(2): 115–132.Google Scholar

Mezias, J. M. & Scandura, T. A. 2005. A needs-driven approach to expatriate adjustment and career development: a multiple mentoring perspective. Journal of International Business Studies, 36(5): 519–538.Google Scholar

Nowak, C. & Linder, C. 2016. Do you know how much your expatriate costs? An activity-based cost analysis of expatriation. Journal of Global Mobility, 4(1): 88–107.Google Scholar

Odour, G., Mendenhall, M. E., & Ritchie, J. B. 2000. Leveraging travel as a tool for global leadership development. Human Resource Management, 39(2–3): 159–172.Google Scholar

Ren, H., Bolino, M. C., Shaffer, M. A., & Kraimer, M. L. 2013. The influence of job demands and resources on repatriate career satisfaction: a relative deprivation perspective. Journal of World Business, 48(1): 149–159.Google Scholar

Schuler, R. S. & Jackson, S. E. 1987. Linking competitive strategies with human resource management practices. Academy of Management Perspectives, 1(3): 207–219.Google Scholar

Selmer, J. & Fenner, C.R.Jr, 2009. Job factors and work outcomes of public sector expatriates. Human Resource Management Journal, 19(1): 75–90.Google Scholar

Shay, J. P. & Tracey, J. B. 2009. Expatriate adjustment and effectiveness: the mediating role of managerial practices. Journal of International Management, 15(4): 401–412.Google Scholar

Silbiger, A., Berger, R., Barnes, B. R., & Renwick, WS, D. 2017. Improving expatriation success: the roles of regulatory focus and burnout. British Journal of Management, 28(2): 231–247.Google Scholar

Suutari, V. & Tahvanainen, M. 2002. The antecedents of performance management among Finnish expatriates. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13: 55–75.Google Scholar

Tahvanainen, M. 2000. Expatriate performance management: the case of Nokia telecommunications. Human Resource Management, 39: 267–275.Google Scholar

Takeuchi, R., Tesluk, P. E., Yun, S., & Lepak, D. P. 2005. An integrative view of international experience. Academy of Management Journal, 48(1): 85–100.Google Scholar

Toh, S. M. & DeNisi, A. S. 2007. Host country nationals as socializing agents: a social identity approach. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28(3): 281–301.Google Scholar

Toh, S. M. & Srinivas, E. S. 2012. Perceptions of task cohesiveness and organizational support increase trust and information sharing between host country nationals and expatriate coworkers in Oman. Journal of World Business, 47(4): 696–705.Google Scholar

Tung, R. L. & Varma, A. 2008. Expatriate selection and evaluation. In Smith, P. B., Peterson, M. F., & Thomas, D. C. (eds.), Handbook of Cross-Cultural Management Research; 367–378. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Van De Vliert, E., Shi, K., Sanders, K., Wang, Y., & Huang, X. 2004. Chinese and Dutch interpretations of supervisory feedback. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35(4): 417–435.Google Scholar

Vance, C. M., Andersen, T., Vaiman, V., & Gale, J. 2014. A taxonomy of potential contributions of the host country national local liaison role in global knowledge management. Thunderbird International Business Review, 56(2): 173–191.Google Scholar

Varma, A. & Budhwar, P. 2020. Introduction – Performance management in context. In Varma, A. & Budhwar, P. (eds.), Performance Management Systems: An Experiential Approach, 1–14 London: Sage.Google Scholar

Varma, A. & Budhwar, P.. 2020. Implementing a performance management system. In Varma, A. & Budhwar, P. (eds.), Performance Management Systems: An Experiential Approach. 165–180 London: Sage.Google Scholar

Varma, A., Budhwar, P., & McCusker, C. 2014. Performance management in global organizations. In Collings, D., Caligiuri, P., & Wood, G., (eds.), Companion to International Human Resource Management: 172–189. Abingdon: Routledge.Google Scholar

Varma, A., Budhwar, P., Katou, A., & Mathew, J. 2016. Interpersonal affect and host country national support of expatriates: an investigation in China. Journal of Global Mobility, 4(4): 476–495.Google Scholar

Varma, A., Budhwar, P., & Singh, S. 2015. Performance management and high-performance work practices in emerging markets. In Horwitz, F. & Budhwar, P. (eds.), Handbook of Human Resource Management in Emerging Markets: 316–334. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar

Varma, A., Budhwar, P., & Yu, M. (2018). Global performance management. In Harzing, A. & Reiche, S. (eds.), International Human Resource Management (5th ed.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Varma, A., Toh, S. M., & Budhwar, P. 2006. A new perspective on the female expatriate experience: the role of host country national categorization. Journal of World Business, 41: 112–120.Google Scholar

Varma, A., Tallapragada, R., & Shi, Y. 2019. Expatriate networks in host countries: a recipe for successful adjustment. Paper presented at the IBS Mumbai International HR Conference, Mumbai, India.Google Scholar

Varma, A. & Tung, R. 2020. Performance management for expatriates. In Varma, A. & Budhwar, P. (eds.), Performance Management: An Experiential Approach. 153–164 London: Sage.Google Scholar

Wang, C. H. 2018. To relocate internationally or not to relocate internationally: a Taiwanese case study. Journal of Global Mobility, 6(2): 226–240.Google Scholar

Wang, C. H. & Varma, A. 2019. Cultural distance and expatriate failure rates: the moderating role of expatriate management practices. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 30(15): 2211–2230.Google Scholar

Zhu, J., Wanberg, C. R., Harrison, D. A., & Diehn, E. W. 2016. Ups and downs of the expatriate experience? Understanding work adjustment trajectories and career outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(4): 549–568.Google Scholar

Adams, J. S. 1965. Inequity in social exchange. In Berkowitz, L. (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 2: 267–299. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar

AIR Inc. 2010. Diverse Expatriate Populations – Alternative Remuneration Packages. New York: AIR Inc.Google Scholar

AIR Inc. 2011. Local-Plus: Tips, Tools and Trends. New York: AIR Inc.Google Scholar

Barney, J. B. 2001. Resource-based theories of competitive advantage: a ten-year retrospective on the resource-based view. Journal of Management, 27(6): 643–650.Google Scholar

Baron, J. N. & Kreps, D. M. 1999. HRM in emerging companies. Strategic Human Resources. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar

Bitten, J. 2001. Compensation strategies for international assignments: alternatives to the balance sheet. HR Professional, 18(2): 29–31.Google Scholar

Bonache, J. 2004. Towards a re-examination of work arrangements: an analysis from Rawls’ theory of justice. Human Resource Management Review, 14(4): 395–408.Google Scholar

Bonache, J. 2005. Job satisfaction among expatriates, repatriates and domestic employees: the perceived impact of international assignments on work-related variables. Personnel Review, 34(1): 110–124Google Scholar

Bonache, J. 2006. The compensation of expatriates: a review and a future research agenda. In Stahl, G. & Bjorkman, I., Handbook of Research in International Human Resource Management: 158–175. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.Google Scholar

Bonache, J. & Noethen, D. 2014. The impact of individual performance on organizational success and its implications for the management of expatriates. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(14): 1960 –1977.Google Scholar

Bonache, J. & Pla-Barber, J. 2005. When are international managers a cost effective solution? The rationale of transaction cost economics applied to staffing decisions in MNCs. Journal of Business Research, 58(10): 1320–1329.Google Scholar

Bonache, J., Sanchez, J. I., & Zárraga-Oberty, C. 2009. The interaction of expatriate pay differential and expatriate inputs on host country nationals’ pay unfairness. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(10): 2135–2149.Google Scholar

Bonache, J. & Stirpe, L. 2012. Compensating global employees. In Stahl, G. K., Björkman, I., & Morris, S., (eds.), Handbook of Research in International Human Resource Management (2nd ed.): 162–182. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.Google Scholar

Bonache, J. & Zárraga-Oberty, C. 2017. The traditional approach to compensating global mobility: criticisms and alternatives. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28(1): 149–169.Google Scholar

Bonache, J. & Zárraga-Oberty, C. 2020. Compensating Global Mobility in a Workers’ Cooperative: an interpretive study, in Journal of World Business, in Press.Google Scholar

Brookfield, 2015. Global Relocation Trends Survey Report. Woodridge, IL.Google Scholar

Caligiuri, P. & Bonache, J. 2016. Evolving and enduring challenges in global mobility. Journal of World Business, 51(1): 127–141.Google Scholar

Chen, C. C., Choi, J., & Chi, S. C. 2002. Making justice sense of local-expatriate compensation disparity: mitigation by local referents, ideological explanations, and interpersonal sensitivity in China-foreign joint ventures. Academy of Management Journal, 45(4): 807–826.Google Scholar

Chen, G., Ployhart, R. E., Thomas, H. C., Anderson, N., & Bliese, P. D. 2011. The power of momentum: a new model of dynamic relationships between job satisfaction change and turnover intentions. Academy of Management Journal, 54(1): 159–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dickover, G. F. 1957. Employee relations in foreign operations. In Case Studies in Foreign Operations: International Management Association: 118–133.Google Scholar

Edström, A. & Galbraith, J. R. 1977. Transfer of managers as a coordination and control strategy in multinational organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 22(2): 248.Google Scholar

Farndale, E., Scullion, H., & Sparrow, P. 2010. The role of the corporate HR function in global talent management. Journal of World Business, 45(2): 161–168.DOI:10.1016/j.jwb.2009.09.012.Google Scholar

Festing, M. & Perkins, S. 2008. Rewards for internationally mobile employees. In Dickmann, M., Brewster, C., & Sparrow, P. (eds.), International Human Resource Management: A European Perspective: 150–173. Oxon: Routledge.Google Scholar

Festinger, L. 1954. A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7: 117–140.Google Scholar

Gomez-Mejia, L. R., Berrone, P., & Franco-Santos, M. 2014. Compensation and Organizational Performance: Theory, Research, and Practice. Abingdon: Routledge.Google Scholar

Gupta, A. K. & Govindarajan, V. 2002. Cultivating a global mindset. The Academy of Management Executive, 16(1): 116–126.Google Scholar

Harvey, M. G. 1993a. Designing a global compensation system: the logic and a model. Colombia Journal of World Business, 28: 56–72.Google Scholar

Harvey, M. G. 1993b. Empirical evidence of recurring international compensation problems. Journal of International Business Studies, 24(4): 785–799.Google Scholar

Kahneman, D. & Tversky, A. 1984. Choices, values and frames. American Psychologist, 39(4): 341–350.Google Scholar

KPMG 2016. Global Assignment Policies and Practices. Publication number: 133764-G.Google Scholar

Leung, K., Zhu, Y., & Ge, C. 2009. Compensation disparity between locals and expatriates: moderating the effects of perceived injustice in foreign multinationals in China. Journal of World Business, 44(1): 85–93.Google Scholar

Lowe, K. B., Milliman, J., De Cieri, H., & Dowling, P. J. 2002. International compensation practices: a ten‐country comparative analysis. Human Resource Management: Published in Cooperation with the School of Business Administration, The University of Michigan and in alliance with the Society of Human Resources Management, 41(1): 45–66.Google Scholar

McNulty, Y. 2014. The opportunity costs of local-plus and localization approaches to expatriate compensation. In Berger, L. and Berger, D. (eds.), The Compensation Handbook 6th ed. Columbus: McGraw-Hill Education.Google Scholar

McNulty, Y. 2015. Employing novel compensation approaches to compete for expatriate talent. In L. Berger and D. Berger (eds.), The Compensation Handbook: A State-of-the-Art Guide to Compensation Strategy and Design 6th ed.: 503–518. Columbus: McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN-13: 978–0071836999. Reprinted in: Mendenhall, M., G. Oddou, G. Stahl, & R.S. Reiche (eds.). (2016). Readings and Cases in International HRM and OB (5th ed.), in press.Google Scholar

McNulty, Y., De Cieri, H., & Hutchings, K. 2009. Do global firms measure expatriate return on investment? An empirical examination of measures, barriers and variables influencing global staffing practices. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(6): 1309–1326.Google Scholar

Mercer 2015. Worldwide Survey of International Assignment Policies and Practices. Geneva: Mercer.Google Scholar

Nowak, C. & Linder, C. 2016. Do you know how much your expatriate costs? An activity-based cost analysis of expatriation. Journal of Global Mobility, 4(1): 88–107.Google Scholar

Oltra, V., Bonache, J., & Brewster, C. 2013. A new framework for understanding inequalities between expatriates and host country nationals. Journal of Business Ethics, 115(2): 291–310.Google Scholar

O’Really, M. 1996. Expatriate pay: the state of the art. Compensation and Benefits Review, 12(1): 54–60.Google Scholar

Paik, Y., Parboteeah, K. P., & Shim, W. 2007. The relationship between perceived compensation, organizational commitment and job satisfaction: the case of Mexican workers in the Korean Maquiladoras. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 18(10): 1768–1781.Google Scholar

Phillips, L. & Fox, M. A. 2003. Compensation strategy in transnational corporations. Management Decision, 41(5): 465–476.Google Scholar

Reiche, B. S., Kraimer, M. L., & Harzing, A. W. 2011. Why do international assignees stay? An organizational embeddedness perspective. Journal of International Business Studies, 42(4): 521–544.Google Scholar

Reynolds, C. 1997. Expatriate compensation in historical perspective. Journal of World Business, 32(2): 118–132.Google Scholar

Shaffer, M. A, Harrison, D., & Gilley, M. 1999. Dimensions, determinants, and differences in the expatriate adjustment process. Journal of International Business Studies, 30(3): 557–581.Google Scholar

Stahl, G. K., Miller, E., & Tung, R. 2002. Toward the boundaryless career: a closer look at the expatriate career concept and the perceived implications of an international assignment. Journal of World Business, 37: 216–227.Google Scholar

Suutari, V. & Tornikoski, C. 2000. Determinants of expatriate compensation–Findings among expatriate members of SEFE. Finnish Journal of Business Economics, 49(4): 517–539.Google Scholar

Suutari, V. & Tornikoski, C. 2001. The challenge of expatriate compensation: the sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction among expatriates. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 12(3): 389–404.Google Scholar

Toh, S. M. & DeNisi, A. 2003. Host country national reactions to expatriate pay policies: a model and implications. Academy of Management Review, 28(4): 606–621.Google Scholar

Tornikoski, C., Suutari, V., & Festing, M. 2014. Compensation package of international assignees. The Routledge Companion to International Human Resource Management, 289.Google Scholar

Welch, C. L., Welch, D. E., & Tahvanainen, M. 2008. Managing the HR dimension of international project operations. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(2): 205–222.Google Scholar

Yan, A., Zhu, G., & Hall, D. T. 2002, International assignments for career building: a model of agency relationships and psychological contracts. Academy of Management Review, 27(3): 373–391.Google Scholar

Arthur, M. B. & Rousseau, D. M. 1996. The Boundaryless Career: A New Employment Principle for a New Organizational Era. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Arthur, M. B., Hall, D. T., & Lawrence, B. S. 1989. Generating new directions in career theory: the case for a transdisciplinary approach. In Arthur, M. B., Hall, D. T., & Lawrence, B. S. (eds.), Handbook of Career Theory: 7–25. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Banai, M. & Wes, H. 2004. Boundaryless global careers: the international itinerants. International Studies of Management and Organization, 34(3): 96–130.Google Scholar

Baruch, Y. 2006. Career development in organizations and beyond: balancing traditional and contemporary viewpoints. Human Resource Management Review, 16(2): 125–138.Google Scholar

Baruch, Y., Altman, Y., & Tung, R. L. 2016. Career mobility in a global era: advances in managing expatriation and repatriation. Academy of Management Annals, 10(1): 841–889.Google Scholar

Baruch, Y. & Reis, C. 2016. How global are boundaryless careers and how boundaryless are global careers? Challenges and a theoretical perspective. Thunderbird International Business Review, 58(1): 13–27.Google Scholar

Black, J. S. & Gregersen, H. B. 1991. When Yankee comes home: factors related to expatriate and spouse repatriation adjustment. Journal of International Business Studies, 22(4): 671–694.Google Scholar

Black, J. S. & Gregersen, H. B. 1999. The right way to manage expats. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/1999/03/the-right-way-to-manage-expats.Google Scholar

Bolino, M. C., Klotz, A. C., & Turnley, W. H. 2017. Will refusing an international assignment derail your career? Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2017/04/will-refusing-an-international-assignment-derail-your-career.Google Scholar

Bossard, A. B. & Peterson, R. B. 2005. The repatriate experience as seen by American expatriates. Journal of World Business, 40(1): 9–28.Google Scholar

Brookfield 2015. Global Relocation Trends: 2015 Survey Report. Chicago: Brookfield Global Relocation Services.Google Scholar

Cao, L., Hirschi, A., & Deller, J. 2012. Self-initiated expatriates and their career success. Journal of Management Development, 31(2): 159–172.Google Scholar

Carraher, S. M., Sullivan, S. E., & Crocitto, M. M. 2008. Mentoring across global boundaries: an empirical examination of home-and host-country mentors on expatriate career outcomes. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(8): 1310–1326.Google Scholar

Cerdin, J.-L. & Le Pargneux, M. 2009. Career and international assignment fit: toward an integrative model of success. Human Resource Management, 48(1): 5–25.Google Scholar

Chi, S. C. S. & Chen, S. C. 2007. Perceived psychological contract fulfilment and job attitudes among repatriates: an empirical study in Taiwan. International Journal of Manpower, 28(6): 474–488.Google Scholar

Chiang, F. F., van Esch, E. Birtch, T. A., & Shaffer, M. A. 2018. Repatriation: what do we know and where do we go from here. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 29(1): 188–226.Google Scholar

Cho, T., Hutchings, K., & Marchant, T. 2013. Key factors influencing Korean expatriates’ and spouses’ perceptions of expatriation and repatriation. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24(5): 1051–1075.Google Scholar

Clegg, A. 2016. Expatriate employees struggle to readjust to old lives. Financial Times. www.ft.com/content/7e77b478-a1da-11e6-aa83-bcb58d1d2193.Google Scholar

DeFillippi, R. J. & Arthur, M. B. 1994. The boundaryless career: a competency-based perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15(4): 307–324.Google Scholar

Dickmann, M. & Harris, H. 2005. Developing career capital for global careers: the role of international assignments. Journal of World Business, 40(4): 399–408.Google Scholar

Dickmann, M. F. & Doherty, N. 2008. Exploring the career capital impact of international assignments within distinct organizational contexts. British Journal of Management, 19(2): 145–161.Google Scholar

Doherty, N. T. & Dickmann, M. 2009. Exploring the symbolic capital of international assignments. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(2): 301–320.Google Scholar

Doherty, N. T., Dickmann, M., & Mills, T. 2011. Exploring the motives of company-backed and self-initiated expatriates. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(3): 595–611.Google Scholar

Dowling, P. J., Festing, M., & Engle, A. D. 2013. International Human Resource Management: Managing People in a Multinational Context, 6th ed. Mason: Thomson.Google Scholar

Eby, L. T., Butts, M., & Lockwood, A. 2003. Predictors of success in the era of the boundaryless career. Journal of Organizational Behavior: International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 24(6): 689–708.Google Scholar

Ernst & Young 2014. Strategic Global Mobility: Unlocking the Value of Cross-border Assignments. www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/ey-global-mobility-cross-border-assignments-value/#FILE/ey-HBR-Report.pdf.Google Scholar

Feldman, D. C. & Tompson, H. B. 1993. Expatriation, repatriation, and domestic geographical relocation: an empirical investigation of adjustment to new job assignments. Journal of International Business Studies, 24(3): 507–529.Google Scholar

Furuya, N., Stevens, M. J., Oddou, G., Bird, A., & Mendenhall, M. E. 2007. The effects of HR policies and repatriate self-adjustment on global competency transfer. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 45(1): 6–23.Google Scholar

Furuya, N., Stevens, M. J., Bird, A., Oddou, G., & Mendenhall, M. 2009. Managing the learning and transfer of global management competence: antecedents and outcomes of Japanese repatriation effectiveness. Journal of International Business Studies, 40(2): 200–215.Google Scholar

Geissler, C., Kuhn, L., & McGinn, D. 2011. Developing Your Global Know-How. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2011/03/developing-your-global-know-how.Google Scholar

Gregersen, H. B. & Black, J. S. 1996. Multiple commitments upon repatriation: the Japanese experience. Journal of Management, 22(2): 209–229.Google Scholar

Gregersen, H. B. & Stroh, L. K. 1997. Coming home to the Arctic cold: antecedents to Finnish expatriate and spouse repatriation adjustment. Personnel Psychology, 50(3): 635–654.Google Scholar

Guo, C., Porschitz, E. T., & Alves, J. 2013. Exploring career agency during self-initiated repatriation: a study of Chinese sea turtles. Career Development International, 18(1): 34–55.Google Scholar

Hall, D. T. 1976. Careers in Organizations. Glenview: Scott, Foresman.Google Scholar

Hall, D. T. 2004. The protean career: a quarter-century journey. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65(1): 1–13.Google Scholar

Hall, D. T. & Moss, J. E. 1998. The new protean career contract: helping organizations and employees adapt. Organizational Dynamics, 26(3): 22–37.Google Scholar

Harrison, M. 2016. The Decline of the Traditional Expat? Employee Conditions Abroad. www.eca-international.com/insights/articles/may-2016/the-decline-of-the-traditional-expat.Google Scholar

Harrison, D. A., Shaffer, M. A., & Bhaskar-Shrinivas, P. (2004). Going places: roads more and less traveled in research on expatriate experience. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 23: 199–247.Google Scholar

Haslberger, A. & Brewster, C. 2009. Capital gains: expatriate adjustment and the psychological contract in international careers. Human Resource Management, 48(3): 379–397.Google Scholar

Herman, J. L. & Tetrick, L. E. 2009. Problem-focused versus emotion-focused coping strategies and repatriation adjustment. Human Resource Management, 48(1): 69–88.Google Scholar

Hyder, A. S. & Lövblad, M. 2007. The repatriation process–a realistic approach. Career Development International, 12(3): 264–281.Google Scholar

Judge, T. A., Cable, D. M., Boudreau, J. W., & Bretz, R. D. Jr 1995. An empirical investigation of the predictors of executive career success. Personnel Psychology, 48(3): 485–519.Google Scholar

KPMG 2018. 2018 Global Assignment Policies and Practices Survey. https://home.kpmg/xx/en/home/insights/2016/10/global-assignment-policies-and-practices-survey-2016.html.Google Scholar

Kraimer, M. L., Shaffer, M. A., & Bolino, M. C. 2009. The influence of expatriate and repatriate experiences on career advancement and repatriation retention. Human Resource Management, 48(1): 27–48.Google Scholar

Kraimer, M. L., Shaffer, M. A., Harrison, D. A., & Ren, H. 2012. No place like home? An identity strain perspective on repatriate turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 55(2): 399–420.Google Scholar

Kulkarni, M., Lengnick-Hall, M. L., & Valk, R. 2010. Employee perceptions of repatriation in an emerging economy: the Indian experience. Human Resource Management, 49(3): 531–548.Google Scholar

Lazarova, M. & Caligiuri, P. 2001. Retaining repatriates: the role of organizational support practices. Journal of World Business, 36(4): 389–401.Google Scholar

Lazarova, M. & Cerdin, J. L. 2007. Revisiting repatriation concerns: organizational support versus career and contextual influences. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(3): 404–429.Google Scholar

Lazarova, M., & Tarique, I. 2005. Knowledge transfer upon repatriation. Journal of World Business, 40(4): 361–373.Google Scholar

Linehan, M. & Scullion, H. 2002. Repatriation of European female corporate executives. International Human Resource Management Journal, 13(2): 254–267.Google Scholar

Mäkelä, K. & Brewster, C. 2009. Interunit interaction contexts, interpersonal social capital, and the differing levels of knowledge sharing. Human Resource Management, 48(4): 591–613.Google Scholar

Mäkelä, K. & Suutari, V. 2009. Global careers: a social capital paradox. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(5): 992–1008.Google Scholar

McCall, M. W. & Hollenbeck, G. P. 2002. Developing Global Executives. Cambridge: Harvard Business School Press.Google Scholar

Molinsky, A. & Hahn, M. 2016. 5 tips for managing successful overseas assignments. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2016/03/5-tips-for-managing-successful-overseas-assignments.Google Scholar

Monat, A. & Lazarus, R. S. (eds.) 1991. Stress and Coping. An Anthology, 3rd ed. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Oddou, G., Osland, J. S., & Blakeney, R. N. 2009. Repatriating knowledge: variables influencing the ‘transfer’ process. Journal of International Business Studies, 40(2): 181–199.Google Scholar

O’Sullivan, S. 2002. The protean approach to managing repatriation transitions. International Journal of Manpower, 23(7): 597–616.Google Scholar

Paik, Y., Segaud, B., & Malinowski, C. 2002. How to improve repatriation management: are motivations and expectations congruent between the company and expatriates? International Journal of Manpower, 23(7): 635–648.Google Scholar

Reiche, B. S., Kraimer, M. L., & Harzing, A. W. 2011. Why do international assignees stay? An organizational embeddedness perspective. Journal of International Business Studies, 42(4): 521–544.Google Scholar

Reichers, A. E. 1986. Conflict and organizational commitment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3): 508–514.Google Scholar

Ren, H., Bolino, M. C., Shaffer, M. A., & Kraimer, M. L. 2013. The influence of job demands and resources on repatriate career satisfaction: a relative deprivation perspective. Journal of World Business, 48(1): 149–159.Google Scholar

Riusala, K. & Suutari, V. 2004. International knowledge transfers through expatriates. Thunderbird International Business Review, 46(6): 743–770.Google Scholar

Rosenbaum, J. E. 1979. Tournament mobility: career patterns in a corporation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(2): 220–241.Google Scholar

Rousseau, D. M. 1989. Psychological and implied contracts in organizations. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 2(2): 121–139.Google Scholar

Shaffer, M. A., Kraimer, M. L., Chen, Y. P., & Bolino, M. C. 2012. Choices, challenges, and career consequences of global work experiences: a review and future agenda. Journal of Management, 38(4): 1282–1327.Google Scholar

Shen, Y. & Hall, D. T. 2009. When expatriates explore other options, retaining talent through greater job embeddedness and repatriation adjustment. Human Resource Management, 48(5): 793–816.Google Scholar

Stahl, G. K., Chua, C. H., Caligiuri, P., Cerdin, J. L., & Taniguchi, M. 2009. Predictors of turnover intentions in learning-driven and demand-driven international assignments: the role of repatriation concerns, satisfactions with company support, and perceived career advancement opportunities. Human Resource Management, 48(1): 89–109.Google Scholar

Stevens, M. J., Oddou, G., Furuya, N., Bird, A., & Mendenhall, M. 2006. HR factors affecting repatriate job satisfaction and job attachment for Japanese managers. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 17(5): 831–841.Google Scholar

Sullivan, S. E. 1999. The changing nature of careers: a review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 25(3): 457–484.Google Scholar

Sullivan, S. E. & Baruch, Y. 2009. Advances in career theory and research: a critical review and agenda for future exploration. Journal of Management, 35(6): 1542–1571.Google Scholar

Super, D. E. 1957. The Psychology of Careers. New York: Harper.Google Scholar

Suutari, V. & Brewster, C. 2003. Repatriation: empirical evidence from a longitudinal study of careers and expectations among Finnish expatriates. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(7): 1132–1151.Google Scholar

Suutari, V. & Mäkelä, K. 2007. The career capital of managers with global careers. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(7): 628–648.Google Scholar

Suutari, V., Tornikoski, C., & Mäkelä, L. 2012. Career decision making of global careerists. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(16): 3455–3478.Google Scholar

Unruh, G. C. & Cabrera, A. 2013. Join the global elite. Harvard Business Review, 91(5): 135–139.Google Scholar

Vaiman, V., Haslberger, A., & Vance, C. M. 2015. Recognizing the important role of self-initiated expatriates in effective global talent management. Human Resource Management Review, 25(3): 280–286.Google Scholar

Vidal, M. E. S., Valle, R. S., & Aragón, M. I. B. 2008. International workers’ satisfaction with the repatriation process. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(9): 1683–1702.Google Scholar

Yan, A., Zhu, G., & Hall, D. T. 2002. International assignments for career building. Academy of Management Review, 27(3): 373–383.Google Scholar

Zhao, H., Wayne, S., Glibkowski, B. C., & Bravo, J. 2007. The impact of psychological contract breach on work-related outcomes: a meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 60(3): 647–680.Google Scholar