Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-pjpqr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-24T21:32:30.914Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

7 - Earth, wind, and fire: abiotic factors and the impacts of global environmental change on forest health

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2012

By
J.E. Lundquist ,
A.E. Camp ,
M.L. Tyrrell ,
S.J. Seybold ,
P. Cannon  and
D.J. Lodge
Edited by
John D. Castello  and
Stephen A. Teale
J.E. Lundquist
Affiliation:
USDA Forest Service
A.E. Camp
Affiliation:
Yale University
M.L. Tyrrell
Affiliation:
Global Institute of Sustainable Forestry
S.J. Seybold
Affiliation:
USDA Forest Service
P. Cannon
Affiliation:
USDA Forest Service
D.J. Lodge
Affiliation:
USDA Forest Service
John D. Castello
Affiliation:
State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry
Stephen A. Teale
Affiliation:
State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry
Get access

Summary

Introduction

Trees do not just die; there is always a primary cause, and often contributing factors. Trees need adequate quantities of water, heat, light, nutrients, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and other abiotic resources to sustain life, growth, and reproduction. When these factors are deficient or excessive, they cause mortality. According to the concept of baseline mortality (Chapters 1, 2, and 3), a certain number of trees must die as a forest ages to maintain a healthy condition. Abiotic factors kill trees in different ways, e.g., starvation, desiccation, uprooting, or stem breakage. The patterns of mortality and how the forest responds determine how changing stand structures impact sustainability and productivity. Here, we discuss abiotic factors, and how they influence diameter and age class distributions. We conclude this chapter by suggesting general principles about the impacts of abiotic disturbances on stand structures within forest ecosystems.

Weather events

Weather is the set of all phenomena occurring in a given atmosphere at a given time. Weather phenomena include wind, clouds, rain, snow, fog, dust storms, ice storms, hurricanes, tornadoes, and others. Some weather events can reset forest succession directly by killing trees. Weather events also can influence the rate and direction of forest succession indirectly by increasing fuels to enhance fire risk or by predisposing trees to other stresses.

Type
Chapter
Information
Forest Health
An Integrated Perspective
 , pp. 195 - 244
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agee, J. K. 1990. The historical role of fire in Pacific Northwest forests. In: Natural and Prescribed Fire in Pacific Northwest Forests. Walstad, J.et al. (eds). Oregon State University Press, Corvallis.Google Scholar
Agee, J. K. 1993. Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest Forests. Island Press, Washington DC, USA.Google Scholar
Agrios, G. N. 2005. Plant Pathology. 5th edition. Elsevier Academic Press, Burlington, MA.Google Scholar
Allen, C. D., Savage, M., and Falk, D. A. 2002. Ecological restoration of southwestern ponderosa pine ecosystems: a broad perspective. Ecological Applications 12: 1418–1433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amatulli, G., Peréz-Cabello, F., and Riva, J. 2007. Mapping lightning/human-caused wildfires occurrence under ignition point location uncertainty. Ecological Modelling 200: 321–333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ancelin, P., Courbaud, B., and Fourcaud, T. Y. 2004. Development of an individual tree-based mechanical model to predict wind damage within forest stands. Forest Ecology & Management 203: 101–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aril, K. and Lechowicz, M. J. 2007. Changes in understory light regime in a beech-maple forest after a severe ice storm. Candian Journal Forest Research 37: 1770–1776.Google Scholar
Augustaitis, A. and Bytnerowicz, A. 2008. Contribution of ambient ozone to Scots pine defoliation and reduced growth in the Central European forests: A Lithuanian case study. Environmental Pollution 155: 436–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ayres, M. P. and Lombardero, M. J. 2000. Assessing the consequences of global change for forest disturbance from herbivores and pathogens. The Science of the Total Environment 262: 263–286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bailey, S. W., Horsley, S. B., and Long, R. P. 2005. Thirty years of change in forest soils of the Allegheny Plateau, Pennsylvania. Soil Science Society of America Journal 69: 681–690.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, P. J., Bunyavejchewin, S., and Robinson, A. P. 2008. The impacts of large-scale low- intensity fires on the forests of continental South-east Asia. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17: 782–792.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, W. L. 1992. The landscape ecology of large disturbances in the design and management of nature reserves. Landscape Ecology 7: 181–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bale, J. S., Masters, G. J., Hodkinson, I. D., et al. 2002. Herbivory in global climate change research: direct effects of rising temperature on insect herbivores. Global Change Biology 8: 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barber, V. A., Juday, G. P., and Finney, B. P. 2000. Reduced growth of Alaska white spruce in the twentieth century from temperature-induced drought stress. Nature 405: 668–673.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brasier, C. M. 1996. Phytophthora cinnamomi and oak decline in southern Europe. Environmental constraints including climate change. Annales Des Sciences Forestieres 53: 347–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Basnet, K., Likens, G. E., Scatena, F. N., and Lugo, A. E. 1992. Hurricane Hugo: damage to a tropical rain forest in Puerto Rico. Journal Tropical Ecology 8: 47–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Basnet, K., Likens, G. E., Scatena, F. N., and Lugo, A. E. 1993. Ecological consequences of root grafting in tabonuco (Dacryodes excelsa) trees in the Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico. Biotropica 25: 28–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Battles, J., Robards, T., Das, A., et al. 2008. Climate change growth on forest growth and tree mortality: a data-driven modeling study in mixed conifer forest of the Sierra Nevada,California. Climatic Change 87(Suppl 1): S193–S213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bazzaz, F. A., Jasienski, M., Thomas, S. C., and Wayne, P. 1995. Microevolutionary responses in experimental populations of plants to CO2-enriched environments: parallel results from two model systems. Proceedings National Academy Science USA 92: 8161–8165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beatty, S. W. 1984. Influence of microtopography and canopy species on spatial patterns of forest understory plants. Ecology: 65: 1406–1419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benito-Espinal, F. P and Benito-Espinal, E. 1991. L'Ouragan Hugo. Genèse, Incidences, Géographiques et Ecologiques su la Guadeloupe. Les Presses de l'Imprimerie Désormeaux à Fort-de-France, Guadeloupe.Google Scholar
Benning, T. L., LaPointe, D., Atkinson, C. T., and Vitousek, P. M. 2002. Interactions of climate change with biological invasions and land use in the Hawaiian Islands: modeling the fate of endemic birds using a geographic information system. Proceedings National Academy Science USA 99: 14246–14249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernal-Salazar, S., Terrazas, T., and Alvarado, D. 2004. Impact of air pollution on ring width and tracheid dimensions in Abies religiosa in the Mexico City basin. Iawa Journal 25: 205–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, P. M., Dawson, T. P., Harrison, P. A., and Pearson, R. G. 2002: Modelling potential impacts of climate change on the bioclimatic envelope of species in Britain and Ireland. Global Ecology and Biogeography 11: 453–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Black, M. P., Mooney, S. D., and Haberle, S. G. 2007. The fire, human, and climate nexus in the Sydney Basin, eastern Australia. The Holocene 17: 469–480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blood, E. R., Anderson, P., Smith, P. A., et al. 1991. Effects of Hurricane Hugo on coastal soil solution chemistry in South Carolina. Biotropica 23(suppl.): 348–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boose, E. R., Foster, D. R., and Fluet, M. 1994. Hurricane impacts to tropical and temperate forest landscapes. Ecological Monographs 64: 369–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bormann, F. H. and Likens, G. E. 1979. Catastrophic disturbance and the steady-state in northern hardwood forests. American Scientist 67: 660–669.Google Scholar
Bormann, F. H., Spaltenstein, H., McClellan, M. H., et al. 1995. Rapid soil development after windthrow disturbance in pristine forests. Journal Ecology 83: 747–757.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boucher, D. H. 1990. Growing back after hurricanes; catastrophes may be critical to rain forest dynamics. BioScience 40: 163–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouget, C. and Duelli, P. 2004. The effects of windthrow on insect communities: a literature review. Biological Conservation 118: 281–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouwman, A. F., Vuuren, D. P., Derwent, R. G., and Posch, M. 2002. A global analysis of acidification and eutrophication of terrestrial ecosystems. Water Air Soil Pollution 141: 349–382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowman, D. M. J. S. 2003. Australian landscape burning: a continental and evolutionary perspective. In: Fire in Ecosystems of South-West Western Australia: Impacts and Management. Abbott, I. and Burrows, N. (eds). Backhuys.Google Scholar
Boykoff, M. 2007. Changing patterns in climate change reporting in United States and United Kingdom media. Presentation at Carbonundrums: Making Sense of Climate Change Reporting around the World, Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism and Environmental Change June 27, 2007.Google Scholar
Bradstock, R. A. 2008. Effects of large fires on biodiversity in south-eastern Australia: disaster or template for diversity?International Journal of Wildland Fire 17: 809–822.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bréda, N., Roland, H., Granier, A., and Dreyer, E. 2006. Temperate forest trees and stands under severe drought: a review of ecophysiological responses, adaptation processes and long-term consequences. Annals Forest Science 63: 625–644.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bush, M. B., Silman, M. R., and Urrego, D. H. 2004. 48 000 years of climate change in a biodiversity hotspot. Science 303: 827–829.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bytnerowicz, A., Arbaugh, M., Schilling, S., et al. 2008. Ozone distribution and phytotoxic potential in mixed conifer forests of the San Bernardino Mountains, Southern California. Environmental Pollution 155: 398–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bytnerowicz, A., Omasa, K., and Paoletti, E. 2007. Integrated effects of air pollution and climate change on forests: A northern hemisphere perspective. Environmental Pollution 147: 438–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Camp, A., Oliver, C., Hessburg, P., and Everett, R. 1997. Predicting late-successional fire refugia pre-dating European settlement in the Wenatchee Mountains. Forest Ecology & Management 95: 63–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canham, C. D. and Loucks, O. L. 1984. Catastrophic windthrow in the presettlement forests of Wisconsin. Ecology 65: 803–809.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrion, J. S., Sanchez-Gomez, P., Mata, J. F., et al. 2003. Holocene vegetation dynamics, fire, and grazing in the Sierra de Gader, southern Spain. The Holocene 13: 839–849.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chakraborty, S. 2005 Potential impact of climate change on plant–pathogen interactions. Aust. Plant Pathol 34: 443–448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chakraborty, S., Tiedemann, A. V., and Teng, P. S. 2000. Climate change: potential impact on plant diseases. Environmental Pollution 108: 317–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chapin, F. S., Yarie, J., Cleve, K., and Viereck, L. A. 2006a. The conceptual basis of LTER studies in the Alaskan boreal forest. In: Alaska's Changing Boreal Forest. Chapin, F. S., Oswood, M. W., and Cleve, K., et al. (eds). Oxford University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Chapin, F. S., Oswood, M. W., Cleve, K., et al. (eds). 2006b. Alaska's Changing Boreal Forest. Oxford University Press, New York.Google Scholar
,CIRMOUNT Committee. 2006. Mapping new terrain: climate change and America's West. Report of the Consortium for Integrated Climate Research in Western Mountains (CIRMOUNT). Misc. Pub., PSW-MISC-77, Albany, CA. Pacific Southwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service.
Coakley, S. M., Scherm, H., and Chakraborty, S. 1999. Climate change and plant disease management. Annual Review Phytopathology 37: 399–426.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coder, K. D. 1999. Drought damage to trees. University of Georgia School of Forest Resources Extension Publication FOR99-010Google Scholar
Cohen, D., Dellinger, B., Klein, R., and Buchanan, B. 2007. Patterns in lightning-caused fires at Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Fire Ecology 3: 68–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Condit, R., Hubbell, S. P., and Foster, R. B. 1995. Mortality rates of 205 neotropical tree and shrub species and the impact of a severe drought. Ecological Monographs 65: 419–439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connell, J. H. 1978. Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science 199: 1302–1310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costermans, L. 1983. Native Trees and Shrubs of South-eastern Australia. Weldon, Sydney, Australia.Google Scholar
Coulson, R. N., Hennier, P. B., Flamm, R. O., et al. 1983. The role of lightning in the epidemiology of the southern pine beetle. Z. Ang. Entomol 96: 182–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Covington, W. W., Fule, P. Z., Moore, M. M., et al. 1997. Restoring ecosystem health in ponderosa pine forests of the southwest. Journal Forestry 95: 21–29.Google Scholar
Craig, B. W. and Friedland, A. J. 1991. Spatial patterns in forest composition and standing dead red spruce in montane forests of the Adirondacks and Northern Appalachians. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 18: 129–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dale, V. H., Joyce, L. A., McNulty, S., et al. 2001. Climate change and forest disturbances. BioScience 51: 723–734.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, K. M. and Mutch, R. W. 1994. Applying ecological principles to manage wildland fire. In: Fire in Ecosystem Management. National Advanced Resources Technology Center.Google Scholar
Davis, K. M., Clayton, B. D., and Fischer, W. C. 1980. Fire ecology of Lolo National Forest habitat types. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-79.
Hayes, D. H., Schaberg, P. G., Hawley, G. J., and Strimbeck, G. R. 1999. Acid rain impacts on calcium nutrition and forest health-alteration of membrane-associated calcium leads to membrane destabilization and foliar injury in red spruce. BioScience 49: 789–800.Google Scholar
Deal, R. L., Oliver, C. D., and Bormann, B. T. 1991. Reconstruction of mixed hemlock-spruce stands in coastal southeast Alaska. Canadian Journal Forest Research 21: 643–654.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deal, R. L., Tappeiner, J. C., and Hennon, P. E. 2002. Developing silvicultural systems based on partial cutting in western hemlock-Sitka spruce stands of southeast Alaska. is the profession embracing the science, art, and practice of creating, managing, using and conserving forests and associated resources for human benefit and in a sustainable manner to meet desired goals, needs and values. 75: 425–431.Google Scholar
Deuber, C. G. 1940. The glaze storm of 1940. American Forests 46: 210–211, 235.Google Scholar
Dickson, R. E. and Isebrands, J. G. 1991. Leaves as regulators of stress response. In: Response of Plants to Multiple Stresses. Mooney, H. A., Winner, W. E., and Pell, E. J. (eds). Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Dittus, W. P. J. 1985. The influence of cyclones on the dry evergreen forest of Sri Lanka. Biotropica 17: 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doyle, T. W. 1981. The role of disturbance in the gap dynamics of a montane rain forest: an application of a tropical succession model. In: Forest Succession Concepts and Application. West, D. C., Shugart, H. H., and Botkin, D. B. (eds). Springer-Verlag, New York.Google Scholar
Driscoll, C. T., Lawrence, G. B., Bulger, A. J., et al. 2001. Acidic deposition in the northeastern United States: Sources and inputs, ecosystem effects, and management strategies. BioScience 51: 180–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drohan, P., Stout, S., and Petersen, G. 1999. Spatial relationships between sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh), sugar maple decline, slope, aspect, and atmospheric deposition in northern Pennsylvania. In: Sugar Maple Ecology and Health: Proceedings of an International Symposium. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Radnor, PA, Warren, PA, U.S.A. Horsley, S. B. and Long, R. P. (eds).
Drollette, D. 2005. Fire down under. Natural History 114: 44–50.Google Scholar
Duguay, S. M., Arii, K., Hooper, M., and Lechowicz, M. J. 2001. Ice storm damage and early recovery in an old-growth forest. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 67: 97–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eberhart, K. E. and Woodward, P. M. 1987. Distribution of residual vegetation associated with large fires in Alberta. Canadian Journal Forest Research 17: 1207–1212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eckberg, T. B., Schmid, J. M., Mata, S. A., and Lundquist, J. E. 1994. Primary focus trees for the mountain pine beetle in the Black Hills. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note RM-531.Google Scholar
Emanuel, K. 2005. Increasing destructiveness of tropical cyclones over the past 30 years. Nature 436: 686–688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, A. M., Camp, A. E., Tyrrell, M. L., and Riely, E. E. 2007. Biotic and abiotic influences on wind disturbance in forests of NW Pennsylvania, USA. Forest Ecology & Management 245: 44–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Everham, E. M. and Brokaw, N. V. L. 1996. Forest damage and recovery from catastrophic wind. Botanical Reviews 62: 113–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Felzer, B. S., Cronin, T., Reilly, J. M., et al. 2007. Impacts of ozone on trees and crops. C. R. Geoscience 339: 784–798.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fischer, R., Mues, V., Ulrich, E., et al. 2007. Monitoring of atmospheric deposition in European forests and an overview on its implication on forest condition. Applied Geochemistry 22: 1129–1139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanagan, P. T., Morgan, P., and Everett, R. L. 1998. Snag recruitment in subalpine forests. Northwest Science 72: 303–309.Google Scholar
Fonseca Gonzalez, J., Santos Posadas, H. M. D., Llanderal Cazares, C., et al. 2008. Ips and woodborer insects in Pinus montezumae trees damaged by fire. Madera y Bosques 14: 69–80. [In Spanish].Google Scholar
Foster, D. R. 1988. Species and stand response to catastrophic wind in central New England, USA. Journal Ecology 76: 135–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foster, D. R. and Boose, E. R. 1992. Patterns of forest damage resulting from catastrophic wind in central New England, USA. Journal Ecology 80: 79–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foster, D. R. and Boose, E. R. 1994. Hurricane disturbance regimes in temperate and tropical forest ecosystems. In: Wind Effects on Trees, Forests and Landscapes. Coutts, M. (ed.). Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Foster, D. R., Knight, D. H., and Frankin, J. F. 1998. Landscape patterns and legacies resulting from large, infrequent forest disturbances. Ecosystems 1: 497–510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foster, D. R., Fluet, M., and Boose, E. R. 1999. Human or natural disturbance: Landscape-scale dynamics of the tropical forests of Puerto Rico. Ecological Applications 9: 555–572.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foster, P. 2001. The potential negative impacts of global climate change on tropical montane cloud forests. Earth-Science Reviews 55: 73–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, D., Cape, J. N., Coyle, M., et al. 1999. The global exposure of forests to air pollutants. Water Air Soil Pollution 116: 5–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frelich, L. E. and Lorimer, C. G. 1991. Natural disturbance regimes in hemlock-hardwood forests of the upper Great Lakes Region. Ecological Monographs 61: 145–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frelich, L. E. and Reich, P. B. 1995. Spatial patterns and succession in a Minnesota southern-boreal forest. Ecological Monographs 65: 325–346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fule, P. Z. 2008. Does it make sense to restore wildland fire in a changing climate?Restoration Ecology 16: 526–531.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furley, P. A. and Newey, W. W. 1979. Variations in plant communities with topography over tropical limestone soils. Journal Biogeography 6: 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gandhi, K. J. K., Gilmore, D. W., Katovich, S. A., et al. 2007. Physical effects of weather events on the abundance and diversity of insects in North American forests. Environmental Reviews 15: 113–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gandhi, K. J. K., Gilmore, D. W., Haack, R. A., et al. 2009. Application of semiochemicals to assess the biodiversity of subcortical insects following an ecosystem disturbance in a sub-boreal forest. Journal Chemical Ecology 35: 1384–1410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardiner, B., Byrne, K., Hale, S., et al. 2008. A review of mechanistic modeling of wind damage risk to forests. is the profession embracing the science, art, and practice of creating, managing, using and conserving forests and associated resources for human benefit and in a sustainable manner to meet desired goals, needs and values. 81: 447–463.Google Scholar
Gardner, L. R., Michner, W. K., Blood, E. R., et al. 1991. Ecological impacts of Hurricane Hugo–salinization of a coastal forest. Journal Coastal Research 8: 301–317.Google Scholar
Garrett, K. A., Dendy, S. P., Frank, E. E., et al. 2006. Climate change effects on plant disease: genomes to ecosystems. Annual Review Phytopathology 44: 489–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gill, A. M. 1981. Fire adaptive traits of vascular plants. In: Fire Regimes and Ecosystem Properties. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. WO26. Mooney H. A. et al. (eds).
Gill, A. M. and Grant, A. 2008. Large fires, fire effects and the fire-regime concept. International Journal Wildland Fire 17: 688–695.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldammer, J. G. 1993. Historical biogeography of fire: tropical and subtropical In: Fire in the Environment: The Ecological, Atmospheric, and Climatic Importance of Vegetation Fires. Crutzen, P. J. and Goldammer, J. G. (eds). Wiley and Sons, New York.Google Scholar
Goldammer, J. G. 1999. Forests on fire. Science 284: 1782–1783.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, F. A. and Sabat, A. M. 1996. The effect of hurricane disturbance on the fecundity of sierra palms (Prestoea montana). Bios 67: 135–139.Google Scholar
Gresham, C. A., Williams, T. M., and Lipscomb, D. J. 1991. Hurricane Hugo wind damage to southeastern U.S. coastal forest tree species. Biotropica 23: 420–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grulke, N. E., Minnich, R. A., Paine, T. D., et al. 2009. Air pollution increases forest susceptibility to wildfires: A case study in the San Bernardino Mountains in southern California. In: Air Pollution and Fire, Developments in Environmental Science, Vol. 8. Bytnerowicz, A., Arbaugh, M., Riebau, A., and Anderson, C. (eds). Elsevier, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Guarin, A. and Taylor, A. H. 2005. Drought-triggered tree mortality in mixed conifer forests in Yosemite National Park, California, USA. Forest Ecology & Management 218: 229–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guyette, R. P., Spetich, M. A., and Stambaugh, M. C. 2006. Historic fire regime dynamics and forcing factors in the Boston Mountains, Arkansas, USA. Forest Ecology & Management 234: 293–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harden, J. W., Trumbore, S. E., Veldhuis, H., and Stocks, B. J. 1997. Moss and soil contributions to the annual net carbon flux of a maturing boreal forest. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 102: 28805–28816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hardy, C. C. 2005. Wildland fire hazard and risk: problems, definitions, and context. Forest Ecology & Management 211: 73–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrington, R., Fleming, R. A., and Woiwod, I. P. 2001. Climate change impacts on insect management and conservation in temperate regions: can they be predicted?Agricultural and Forest Entomology 3: 233–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, A. S. 1989. Wind in the forests of southeast Alaska and guides for reducing damage. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-244.
Harrison, R. D. 2001. Drought and the consequences of El Nino in Borneo: a case study of figs. Population Ecology 43: 63–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hauer, R. J., Wang, W., and Dawson, J. O. 1993. Ice storm damage to urban trees. Journal Arboriculture 19: 187–194.Google Scholar
Heartsill-Scalley, T., Scatena, F., Estrada, N. C., et al. 2007. Disturbance and long-term patterns of rainfall and throughfall nutrient fluxes in a subtropical wet forest in Puerto Rico. Journal Hydrology 333: 472–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heinselman, M. L. 1973. Fire in the virgin forest of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area, Minnesota. Quaternary Research 3: 329–382.Google Scholar
Heinselman, M. L. 1981. Fire intensity and frequency as factors in the distribution and structure of northern ecosystems. In: Fire Regimes and Ecosystem Properties: USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. WO 26. Mooney, H. A. et al. (eds).
Hennon, P. E., D'Amore, D. V., Wittwer, D. T., and Caouette, J. P. 2008. In: Integrated Restoration of Forested Ecosystems to Achieve Multiresource Benefits: Proc. 2007 National Silviculture Workshop. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTP73. Deal, R. L. (tech. ed.). Portland OR: USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station.Google Scholar
Hessburg, P. F., Mitchell, R. G., and Filip, G. M. 1994. Historical and current roles of insects and pathogens in eastern Oregon and Washington forested landscapes. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-327.
Heyerdahl, E. K., Lertzman, K., and Karpuk, S. 2007. Local-scale controls of a low-severity fire regime (1750–1950), southern British Columbia, Canada. Ecoscience 14: 40–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hildebrand, D. 2003. Lightning tracking an important tool in land management and wildland fire suppression. Vaisala News 162: 32–33.Google Scholar
Hobbs, R. J., Arico, S., Aronson, J., et al. 2006. Novel ecosystems: theoretical and management aspects of the new ecological world order. Global Ecology and Biogeography 15: 1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hood, S. M. 2007. Evaluation of a post-fire tree mortality model for western USA conifers. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16: 679–689.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hood, S. M., Smith, S. L., and Cluck, D. R. 2007. Delayed conifer tree mortality following fire in California. In: Restoring Fire-adapted Ecosystems: Proceedings 2005 National Silviculture Workshop. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-203. Powers, R. F. (tech. ed.). USDA Forest Service, Albany, CA: Pacific Southwest Research Station.Google Scholar
Hooper, M. C., Arii, K., and Lechowicz, M. J. 2001. Impact of a major ice storm on an old-growth hardwood forest. Canadian Journal Botany 79: 70–75.Google Scholar
Hope, G., Chokkalingam, U., and Anwar, S. 2005. The stratigraphy and fire history of the Kutai Peatlands, Kalimantan, Indonesia. Quarternary Research 64: 407–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hopkin, A., Williams, T., Sajan, R., et al. 2003. Ice storm damage to eastern Ontario forests: 1998–2001. Forestry Chronicle 79: 47–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horsley, S. B., Long, R. P., Bailey, S. W., et al. 1999. Factors contributing to sugar maple decline along topographical gradients on the glaciated and unglaciated Allegheny Plateau. In: Sugar Maple Ecology and Health: Proceedings International Symposium. Horsley, S. B. and Long, R. P. (eds). USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Radnor, PA.Google Scholar
Hoyos, C. D., Agudelo, P. A., Webster, P. J., and Curry, J. A. 2006. Deconvolution of the factors contributing to the increase in global hurricane intensity. Science 312: 94–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
,IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2001. Climate Change 2001: the Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
,IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2007. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
,IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2007. Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: the Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Solomon, S, Qin, D, Manning, M, et al. (eds). Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Irland, L. C. 1998. Ice storm 1998 and the forests of the northeast. Journal Forestry 96: 32–40.Google Scholar
Irland, L. C. 2000. Ice storms and forest impacts. Science of the Total Environment 262: 231–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
James, A. and Dupuis, J. 2005. The impacts of brush fires on the vegetation of Dominica. In: 12th Meeting of the Caribbean Foresters. Weaver, P. L. and González, K. A. (eds). USDA Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, Río Piedras.Google Scholar
Johnson, E. A. 1992. Fire and Vegetation Dynamics: Studies from the North American Boreal Forest. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, D. W. and Curtis, P. S. 2001. Effects of forest management on soil C and N storage: meta analysis. Forest Ecology & Management 140: 227–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, E. A. and Wagner, C. E. 1985. The theory and use of two fire history models. Canadian Journal Forest Research 15: 214–220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, N. 2005. Wildland fires, management, and restoration in Barbados. In: 12th Meeting of the Caribbean Foresters. Weaver, P. L. and González, K. A. (eds). USDA Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, Río Piedras.Google Scholar
Jurskis, V. 2000. Vegetation changes since European settlement of Australia: an attempt to clear up some burning issues. Australian Forestry 63: 166–173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jurskis, V. 2005. Eucalypt decline in Australia, and a general concept of tree decline and dieback. Forest Ecology & Management 215: 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kamimura, K. and Shiraishi, N.A review of strategies for wind damage assessment in Japanese forests. Journal Forest Research 12: 162–176.CrossRef
Kamimura, K., Gardiner, B., Kato, A., et al. 2008. Developing a decision support approach to reduce wind damage risk – a case study on sugi (Cryptomeria japonica (L.f.)D.Don) forests in Japan. is the profession embracing the science, art, and practice of creating, managing, using and conserving forests and associated resources for human benefit and in a sustainable manner to meet desired goals, needs and values. 81: 429–445.Google Scholar
Karnosky, D. F., Skelly, J. M., Percy, K. E., and Chappelka, A. H. 2007. Perspectives regarding 50 years of research on effects of tropospheric ozone air pollution on US forests. Environmental Pollution 147: 489–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katovich, S. A., McDougall, D., and Chavez, Q. 1998. Impact of forest stressors on the tree species of the Nicolet National Forest- past, present and future. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, Forest Health Protection, NA-TP-02–98Google Scholar
Kayll, A. J. 1968. Heat tolerance of tree seedlings. Proceedings Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference 8: 89–105.Google Scholar
Keane, R. E., Agee, J. K., Fule, P., et al. 2008. Ecological effects of large fires on US landscapes: benefit or catastrophe. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17: 696–712.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keane, R. E., Austin, M., Field, C., et al.. 2001. Tree mortality in gap models: application to climate change. Climate Change 51: 509–540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenderes, K., Aszalos, R., Ruff, J., et al. 2007. Effects of topography and tree stand characteristics on susceptibility of forests to natural disturbances (ice and wind) in Borzsony Mountains (Hungary). Community Ecology 8: 209–220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kershaw, A. P., Clark, J. S., Gill, A. M., and D'Costa, D. M. 2002. A history of fire in Australia. In: Flammable Australia: the Fire Regimes and Biodiversity of a Continent. Bradstock, R. A.et al. (eds). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Kimmins, J. P. 2003. Forest Ecology. 3rd edition. Benjamin Cummings Publishing Co., San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
Kitzberger, T. and Veblen, T. T. 1997. The influence of humans and ENSO on fire history of Austrocedrus chilensis woodlands in northern Patagonia, Argentina. Ecoscience 4: 508–520.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klenner, W., Walton, R., Arsenault, A., and Kremsater, L. 2008. Dry forests in the southern interior of British Columbia: historic disturbances and implications for restoration and management. Forest Ecology & Management 256: 1711–1722.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kliejunas, J. T., Geils, B., Micales Glaeser, J., et al. 2008. Climate and forest diseases of western North America: A literature review. White Paper prepared for The Western Wildlands Environmental Threat Assessment Center, Prineville, OR.
Klotzbach, P. J. 2006. Trends in global tropical cyclone activity over the past twenty years (1986–2005). Geophysical Research Letters 33: L10805.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krieger, D. J. 2001. Economic Value of Forest Ecosystem Services: A Review. The Wilderness Society, Washington DC.Google Scholar
Kulakowski, D. and Veblen, T. T. 2002. Influences of fires history and topography on the pattern of a severe wind blowdown in a Colorado subalpine forest. Journal Ecology 90: 806–819.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lafon, C. W. 2004. Ice-storm disturbance and long-term forest dynamics in the Adirondack Mountains. Journal Vegetation Science 15: 267–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lafon, C. W. and Kutac, M. J. 2003. Effects of ice storms, southern pine beetle infestation, and fire on table mountain pine forests of southwestern Virginia. Physical Geography 24: 502–519.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larsen, J. A. 1980. The boreal ecosystem. Physiological Ecology. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Larjavaara, M., Kuuluvainen, T., and Rita, H. 2005. Spatial distribution of lightning-ignited forest fires in Finland. Forest Ecology & Management 208: 177–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawton, R. O., Nair, U. S., PielkeSr., R. A., and Welch, R. M. 2001. Cimate impact of tropical lowland deforestation on nearby montane cloud forests. Science 294: 584–587.Google Scholar
Lemon, P. C. 1961. Forest ecology of ice storms. Bulletin Torrey Botanical club 88: 21–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Likens, G. E. and Bormann, F. H. 1995. Biogeochemistry of a Forested Ecosystem. 2nd edition. Springer-Verlag New York Inc.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, K. B, Lu, H., and Shen, C. 2008. A 1200-year proxy record of hurricanes and fires from the Gulf of Mexico coast: testing the hypothesis of hurricane-fire interactions. Quarternary Research 69: 29–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lloret, F., Siscart, D., and Dalmases, C. 2004. Canopy recovery after drought dieback in holm-oak Mediterranean forests of Catalonia (NE Spain). Global Change Biology 10: 2092–2099.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lorimer, C. G. 1977. The presettlement forest and natural disturbance cycle of Northeastern Maine. Ecology 58: 139–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lugo, A. E. and Scatena, F. N. 1995. Ecosystem-level properties of the Luquillo Experimental Forest with emphasis on the tabonuco forest. In: Tropical Forests: Management and Ecology. Lugo, A. E. and Lowe, C. (eds). Springer-Verlag, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lugo, A. E. and Scatena, F. N. 1996. Background and catastrophic tree mortality in tropical moist, wet and rain forests. Biotropica 28 (suppl.): 585–599.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lundquist, J. E. and Hamelin, R. C. (eds.). Forest Pathology – From Genes to Landscapes. APS Press, St. Paul, MN, USA.
Lundquist, J. E. and Negron, J. F. 2000. Endemic forest disturbances and stand structure of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) in the Upper Pine Creek Research Natural Area, South Dakota, USA. Natural Areas Journal 20: 126–132.Google Scholar
Lyford, W. H. and MacLean, D. W. 1966. Mound and pit relief in relation to soil disturbance and tree distribution in New Brunswick, Canada. Harvard Forest Paper15.Google Scholar
Major, J. 1951. A functional factorial approach to plant ecology. Ecology 32: 392–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malingreau, J. P., Stephens, G., and Fellows, L. 1985. Remote sensing of forest fires: Kalimantan and North Borneo in 1982–83 El Niño-Southern Oscillation event. In: Tropical Forests and the World Atmosphere. AAAS Selected Symposium 101. Prance, G. T. (ed.). American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Manion, P. D. 1991. Tree Disease Concepts. 2nd edition. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.Google Scholar
Manion, P. D., Griffin, D. H., and Rubin, B. D. 2001. Ice damage impacts on the health of northern New York State Forest. Forestry Chronicle 77: 619–625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mann, M. E. and Emanuel, K. A. 2006. Atlantic hurricane trends linked to climate change. EOS 87: 233–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, H. C. and Weech, P. S. 2001. Climate change in the Bahamas? Evidence in the meterological records. Bahamas Journal of Science 5: 22–32.Google Scholar
McCarthy, J. W. and Weetman, G. 2007. Stand structure and development of an insect-mediated boreal forest landscape. Forest Ecology & Management 241: 101–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDowell, N., Pockman, W. T., Allen, C. D., et al. 2008. Mechanisms of plant survival and mortality during drought: why do some plants survive while others succumb to drought?New Phytologist 178: 719–739.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLeod, R. 2003. The inquiry into the operational response to the January 2003 bushfires. Australia Capital Territory Government report prepared for Chief Minister. Canberra.Google Scholar
,Millenium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington DC, USA.Google Scholar
Miller, J. D., Saafford, H. D., Crimmins, M., and Thodes, A. E. 2009. Quantitative evidence for increasing forest fire severity in the Sierra Nevada and Southern Cascade Mountains, California and Nevada, USA. Ecosystems 12: 16–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, M. J. and Smolarkiewicz, P. K. 2008. Predicting weather, climate, and extreme events. Journal of Computational Physics 227: 3429–3430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, R. M. and Lodge, D. J. 2007. Fungal responses to disturbance–Agriculture and Forestry In: The Mycota, IV, Environmental and Microbial Relationships. 2nd edition. Esser, K., Kubicek, P., and Druzhinina, I. S. (eds). Springer-Verlag, Berlin.Google Scholar
Millward, A. A. and Kraft, C. E. 2004. Physical influences of landscape on a large-extent ecological disturbance: The northeastern North American ice storm of 1998. Landscape Ecology 19: 99–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mueller, O. P. and Cline, M. G. 1959. Effects of mechanical soil barriers and soil wetness on rooting of trees and soil mixing by blow-down in central New York. Soil Science 88: 107–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mueller, R. C., Scudder, C. M., Porter, M. E., et al. 2005. Differential tree mortality in response to severe drought: evidence for long-term vegetation shifts. Journal Ecology 93: 1085–1093.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munton, D. 2002. Fumes, forests and further studies: environmental science and policy inaction in Ontario. Journal of Canadian Studies 37: 130–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myers, R. K. and Lear, D. H. 1998. Hurricane–fire interactions in coastal forests of the south: a review and hypothesis. Forest Ecology & Management 103: 265–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myneni, R. B., Keeling, C. D., Tucker, C. J., et al. 1997. Increased plant growth in the northern high latitudes due to enhanced spring time warming. Nature 386: 698–702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,Natural Resources Canada. 1995. Silvicultural terms in Canada. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service. 2nd edition. Ottawa.Google Scholar
Nealis, V. and Peter, B. 2008. Risk assessment of the threat of mountain pine beetle to Canada's boreal and eastern pine forests. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Information Report BC-X-417, Victoria, British Columbia.Google Scholar
Neelin, J. D., Münnich, M., Su, H., et al. 2006. Tropical drying trends in global warming models and observations. Procedings National Academy Science USA 103: 6110–6115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Negri, A. J., Burkardt, N., Golden, J. H., et al. 2005, The hurricane-flood-landslide continuum. Bulletin American Meteorological Society 86: 1241–1247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nepstad, D. C., Tohver, I. M., Ray, D., et al. 2007. Mortality of large trees and lianas following experimental drought in an Amazon forest. Ecology 88: 2259–2269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nowacki, G. J. and Kramer, M. G. 1998. The effects of wind disturbance on temperate rain forest structure and dynamics of southeast Alaska. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-421.
Oliver, C. D. and Larson, B. C. 1996. Forest Stand Dynamics. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.Google Scholar
Palik, B. J. and Robl, J. 1999. Structural legacies of catastrophic windstorm in a mature Great Lakes aspen forest. North Central Research Station Res. Pap. NC-337, St. Paul, MN.Google Scholar
Park, B. B., Yanai, R. D., Fahey, T. J., et al. 2008. Fine root dynamics and forest production across a calcium gradient in northern hardwood and conifer ecosystems. Ecosystems 11: 325–341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, T. J., Clancy, K. M., and Mathiasen, R. L. 2006. Interactions among fire, insects, and pathogens in coniferous forests of the interior western United States and Canada. Agricultural and Forest Entomology 8: 167–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parrent, J. L., Morris, W. F., and Vilgalys, R. 2006. CO2-enrichment and nutrient availability alter ectomycorrhizal fungal communities. Ecology 87: 2278–2287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parrotta, J. A. 1993. Secondary forest regeneration on degraded tropical lands. In: Restoration of Tropical Forest Ecosystems. Lieth, H. and Lohmann, M. (eds). Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Hague.Google Scholar
Parrotta, J. A. and Lodge, D. J. 1991. Fine root dynamics in a subtropical wet forest following hurricane disturbance. Biotropica 23: 343–347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parrotta, J. A., Turnbull, J. W., and Jones, N. 1997. Catalyzing native forest regeneration on degraded tropical lands. Forest Ecology & Management 99: 1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parsons, M., McLoughlin, C. A., Kotschy, K. A., et al. 2005. The effects of extreme floods on the biophysical heterogeneity of river landscapes. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 3: 487–494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pausas, J. G., Llovet, J., Rodrigo, A., and Vallejo, R. 2008. Are wildfires a disaster in the Mediterranean Basin? A review. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17: 713–723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pennanen, J. 2002. Forest age distribution under mixed-severity fire regimes: a simulation-based analysis for middle boreal Fennoscandia. Silva Fennica 36: 213–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, C. J. 2000. Catastrophic wind damage to North American forests and the potential impact of climate change. The Science of the Total Environment 262: 287–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, C. J. and Leach, A. D. 2008. Limited salvage logging effects on forest regeneration after moderate-severity windthrow. Ecological Applications 18: 407–420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, C. J. and Pickett, S. T. A. 1991. Treefall and resprouting following catastrophic windthrow in old-growth hemlock-hardwoods forest. Forest Ecology & Management 42: 205–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, C. J. and Rebertus, A. J. 1997. Tornado damage and initial recovery in three adjacent, lowland temperate forests in Missouri. Journal Vegetation Science 8: 559–564.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, D. L. and Ryan, K. C. 1986. Modeling post-fire conifer mortality for long-range planning. Environmental Management 10: 797–808.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips, J. D. 2002. Global and local factors in earth surface systems. Ecological Modelling 149: 257–272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Platt, W. J. B., Beckage, R., Doren, F., and Slater, H. H. 2002. Interactions of large-scale disturbances: prior fire regimes and hurricane mortality of Savanna pines. Ecology 83: 1566–1577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Platt, W. J. and Connell, J. H. 2003. Natural disturbances and directional replacement of species. Ecological Monographs 73: 507–522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Podur, J. J., Martell, D. L., and Csillag, F. (2003) Spatial patterns of lightning caused forest fires in Ontario, 1976–1998. Ecological Modeling 164: 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poulos, H. M, Camp, A. E., Gatewood, R. G., and Loomis, L. 2007. A hierarchical approach for scaling forest inventory and fuels data from local to landscape scales in the Davis Mountains, Texas, USA. Forest Ecology & Management 244: 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Proulx, O. J. and Greene, D. F. 2001. The relationship between ice thickness and northern hardwood tree damage during ice storms. Canadian Journal Forest Research 31: 1758–1767.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puhe, J. and Ulrich, B. 2001. Implications of the deposition of acid and nitrogen. In: Global Climate Change and Human Impacts on Forest Ecosystems. Puhe, J. and Ulrich, B. (eds). Springer, Berlin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pyne, S. J. 1995. World Fire: The Culture of Fire on Earth. Henry Holt, New York, USA.Google Scholar
Resh, V. H., Brown, A. V., Covich, A. P., et al. 1988. The role of disturbance in stream ecology. Journal North American Benthological Society 7: 433–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rhoads, A. G., Hamburg, S. P., Fahey, T. J., et al. 2002. Effects of an intense ice storm on the structure of a northern hardwood forest. Canadian Journal Forest Research 32: 1763–1775.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rich, R. L., Frelich, L. E., and Reich, P. B. 2007. Wind-throw mortality in the southern boreal forest: effects of species, diameter and stand age. Journal Ecology 95: 1261–1273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richardson, D. M., Rundel, P. W., Jackson, S. T., et al. 2007. Human impacts in pine forests: past, present, and future. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 38: 275–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romme, W. H. and Knight, D. H. 1981. Fire frequency and subalpine forest succession along a topographic gradient in Wyoming. Ecology 62: 319–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romme, W. H., Everham, E. H., Frelich, L. E., et al. 1998. Are large, infrequent disturbances qualitatively different from small, frequent disturbances?Ecosystems 1: 524–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rouault, G., Candau, J. N., Lieutier, F., et al. 2006. Effects of drought and heat on forest insect populations in relation to the 2003 drought in Western Europe. Annals of Forest Science 63: 613–624.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowe, J. S. 1981. Concepts of fire effects on plant individuals and species. In: The Role of Fire in Northern Circumpolar Ecosystems. Wein, R. W. and Maclean, D. A. (eds). John Wiley and Sons, New York.Google Scholar
Ryan, K. C. 2002. Dynamic interactions between forest structure and fire behavior in boreal ecosystems. Silva Fennica 36: 13–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryerson, D. E., Swetnam, T. W., and Lynch, A. M. 2003. A tree-ring reconstruction of western spruce budworm outbreaks in the San Juan Mountains, Colorado, USA. Canadian Journal Forest Research 33: 1010–1028.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanford, R. L., Parton, W. J., Ojima, D. S., and Lodge, D. J. 1991. Hurricane effects on soil organic matter dynamics and forest production in the Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico: Results of simulation modelling. Biotropica 23: 364–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sartwell, C. 1971. Thinning ponderosa pine to prevent outbreaks of Mountain Pine Beetle. In: Proceeding Short Course on Precommerical Thinning of Coast and Intermountain Forests in the Pacific Northwest, February 3–4, 1971, Pullman, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Scatena, F. N. 1998. Climate change and the Luquillo Experimental Forest of Puerto Rico: Assessing the impacts of various climate change scenarios. American Water Resources Association TPS-98–2: 193–198.Google Scholar
Scatena, F. N. and Larsen, M. C. 1991. Physical aspects of Hurricane Hugo in Puerto Rico. Biotropica 23(suppl.): 317–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scatena, F. N. and Lugo, A. E. 1995. Geomorphology, disturbance, and -the soil and vegetation of two subtropical wet steepland watersheds of Puerto Rico. Geomorphology 13: 199–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaberg, P. G., DeHayes, D. H., and Hawley, G. J. 2001. Anthropogenic calcium depletion: A unique threat to forest ecosystem health?Ecosystem Health 7: 214–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaetzl, R. J., Johnson, D. L., Burns, S. F., and Small, T. W. 1989. Tree uprooting: a review of terminology, process, and environmental implications. Canadian Journal Forest Research 19: 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schellekens, J., Bruijnzeel, L. A., Scatena, F. N., et al. 2000. Evaporation from a tropical rain forest, Luquillo Experimental Forest, eastern Puerto Rico. Water Resources Research 36: 2183–2196CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schellhaas, R., Camp, A. E., Spurbeck, D., and Keenum, D. 2000. Report to the Colville National Forest on the results of the South Deep watershed fire history research. USDA Forest Service PNW Research Station, Wenatchee Forestry Sciences Laboratory.
Shepon, A. and Gildor, H. 2007. The lightning-biotic climatic feedback. Global Change Biology 14: 440–450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shinneman, D. J. and Baker, W. I. 1997. Nonequilibrium dynamics between catastrophic disturbances and old-growth forests in ponderosa pine landscapes of the Black Hills. Conservation Biology 11: 1276–1288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shorohova, E., Fedorchuk, V., Kuznetsova, M., and Shvedova, O. 2008. Wind-induced successional changes in pristine boreal Picea abies forest stands: evidence from long-term permanent plot records. is the profession embracing the science, art, and practice of creating, managing, using and conserving forests and associated resources for human benefit and in a sustainable manner to meet desired goals, needs and values. 81: 335–359.Google Scholar
Shortle, W. C. and Smith, K. T. 1988. Aluminum-induced calcium deficiency syndrome in declining red spruce. Science 240: 1017–1018.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shortle, W. C., Smith, K. T., and Dudzik, K. R. 2003. Tree survival and growth following ice storm injury. USDA Forest Service Northeastern Research Station, Research Paper NE-723Google Scholar
Siccama, T. G., Bliss, M., and Vogelmann, H. W. 1982. Decline of red spruce in the Green Mountains of Vermont. Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club 109: 162–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegert, F., Ruecker, G., Hinrichs, A., and Hoffman, A. A. 2001. Increased damage from fires in logged forests during droughts caused by El Nino. Nature 414: 437–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skärby, L., Ro-Poulsen, H., Wellburn, F. A. M., and Sheppard, L. J. 1998. Impacts of ozone on forests: a European perspective. New Phytologist 139: 109–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slik, J. W. F. 2004. El Niño droughts and their effects on tree species composition and diversity in tropical rain forests. Oecologia 141: 114–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soja, A. J., Tchebakova, N. M., French, N. H. F., et al. 2006. Climate-induced boreal forest change: Predictions versus current observations. Global and Planetary Change 56: 274–296.Google Scholar
Stark, R. W. 1987. Impacts of forest insects and diseases: significance and measurement. CRC Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 5: 161–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, R. 2008. Natural disasters: Ecologists report huge storm losses in China's forests. Science 319: 1318–1319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strauss, S., Bednar, L., and Mees, R. 1989. Do one percent of the forest fires cause ninety-nine percent of the damage?Forest Science 35: 319–328.Google Scholar
Sturm, M., Racine, E., and Tape, K. 2001. Climate change: increasing shrub abundance in the Arctic. Nature 411: 546–547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swetnam, T. W. and Lynch, A. M. 1993. Multi century, regional-scale patterns of western spruce budworm outbreaks. Ecological Monographs 63: 241–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Takahashi, K., Aril, K. and Lechowicz, M. J. 2007. Quantitative and qualitive effects of a severe ice storm on an old-growth beech-maple forest. Canadian Journal Forest Research 37: 598–606.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tainter, F. H. and Baker, F. A. 1996. Principles of Forest Pathology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.Google Scholar
Taiz, L. and Zeiger, E. 2006. Plant Physiology. 4th edition. Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, MA.Google Scholar
Tanaka, N. 2009. Vegetation bioshields for tsunami mitigation: review of effectiveness, limitations, construction, and sustainable management. Landscape Ecological Engineering 5: 71–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanner, E. J. V. and Kapos, V. 1991. Hurricane effects on forest ecosystems in the Caribbean. Biotropica 23: 513–521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tao, F. and Feng, Z. 2000. Terrestrial ecosystem sensitivity to acid deposition in South China. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 118: 231–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thies, W. G. 2001. Root diseases in eastern Oregon and Washington. Northwest Science 75: (Special Issue) 38–45.Google Scholar
Thompson, J., Brokaw, N. V. L., Zimmerman, J., et al. 2002. Land use history, environment, and tree composition in a tropical forest. Ecological Applications 12: 1344–2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Throop, H. L. and Lerdau, M. T. 2004. Effects of nitrogen deposition on insect herbivory: Implications for community and ecosystem processes. Ecosystems 7: 109–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, M. G., Baker, W. L., Peterson, C. J., and Peet, R. K. 1998. Factors influencing succession: lesson from large, infrequent, natural disturbances. Ecosystems 1: 511–523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, M. G. and Dale, V. H. 1998. Comparing large, infrequent disturbances: what have we learned?Ecosystems 1: 493–496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uriarte, M., Rivera, L. W., Zimmerman, J. K., et al. 2004. Effects of land use history on hurricane damage and recovery in a neotropical forest. Plant Ecology 174: 49–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valladares, F. 2008. A mechanistic view of the capacity of forests to cope with climate change. In: Managing Forest Ecosystems: The Challenge of Climate Change. Bravo, F.et al. (eds). Kluwer Academic Press.Google Scholar
Molen, , 2002. Meteorological impacts of land use change in the maritime tropics. PhD dissertation, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam.
Dyke, O. 1999. A literature review of ice storm impact on forests in Eastern North America. SCSS Technical Report #112. Pembroke, Ontario: Landmark Consulting.Google Scholar
Mantgem, P. J., Stephenson, N., Byrne, J. C., et al. 2009. Widespread increase in tree mortality rates in the Western United States. Science 323: 521–524.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, C. E. 1973. Height of crown scorch in forest fires. Canadian Journal Forest Research 3: 373–378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Veblen, T. T., Kitzberger, T., and Donnegan, J. 2000. Climatic and human influences on fire regimes in ponderosa pine forests in the Colorado Front Range. Ecological Applications 10: 1178–1195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Veblen, T. T., Kitzberger, T., Raffaele, E., et al. 2008. The historical range of variability of fires in the Andean – Patagonian Nothofagus forest region. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17: 724–741.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Veblen, T. T., Kitzberger, T., Villalba, R., and Donnegan, J. 1999. Fire history in northern Patagonia: the roles of humans and climatic variation. Ecological Monographs 69: 47–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vygodskaya, N. N., Schulze, E. D., Tchebakova, N. M., et al. 2002. Climatic control of stand thinning in unmanaged spruce forests in the southern taiga in European Russia. Tellus Series B – Chemical and physical meteorology 54: 443–461.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, L. R. 1991. Tree damage and recovery from Hurricane Hugo in the Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico. Biotropica 23(suppl.): 379–385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, L. R., Zimmerman, J. K., Lodge, D. J., and GuzmánGrajales, S. 1996. An elevational comparison of growth and species composition in hurricane-damaged forests in Puerto Rico. Journal Ecology 84: 877–889.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallenius, T. 2002. Forest age distribution and traces of past fires in a natural boreal landscape dominated by Picea abies. Silva Fennica 36: 201–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallenius, T., Kuuluvainen, T., Heikkilä, R., and Lindholm, T. 2002. Spatial tree age structure and fire history in two old-growth forests in eastern Fennoscandia. Silva Fennica 36: 185–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weaver, P. L. 1989. Forest changes after hurricanes in Puerto Rico's Luquillo Mountains. Interciencia 14: 181–192.Google Scholar
Weaver, P. L. and González, K. A. 2005. Wildland fire management and restoration. In: 12th Meeting of the Caribbean Foresters. Weaver, P. L. and González, K. A. (eds). USDA Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, Río Piedras.Google Scholar
Weber, M. H., Hadley, K. S., Frenzen, P. M., and Franklin, J. F. 2006. Forest development following mudflow deposition, Mount St. Helens, Washington. Canadian Journal Forest Research 36: 437–449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westerling, A. L., Hidalgo, H. G., Cayan, D. R., and Swetnam, T. W. 2006. Warming and earlier spring increases western U.S. forest wildlife activity. Science 313: 940–943.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whigham, D. F., Olmsted, I., Cabrera Cano, E., and Harmon, M. E. 1991. The impact of Hurricane Gilbert on trees, litterfall, and woody debris in a dry tropical forest in the northeastern Yucatan Peninsula. Biotropica 23(suppl.): 434–441.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, P. S. and Jentsch, A. 2001. The search for generality in studies of disturbance and ecosystem dynamics. Prog. Bot 62: 399–450.Google Scholar
White, P. S. and Pickett, S. T. A. 1985. Natural disturbance and patch dynamics: An introduction. In: The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics. Pickett, S. T. A. and White, P. S. (eds). Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Whitney, G. G. 1986. Relation of Michigan's presettlement pine forests to substrate and disturbance history. Ecology 67: 1548–1559.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiens, J. A. 1989. Spatial scaling in ecology. Functional Ecology 3: 385–397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, D. W. and Liebhold, A. M. 1995. Herbivorous insects and global change – potential changes in the spatial-distribution of forest defoliator outbreaks. Journal Biogeography 22: 665–671.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, R. J. and Bradstock, R. A. 2008. Large fires and their ecological consequences: an introduction to the special issue. International Journal Wildland Fire 17: 685–687.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilmking, M., Juday, G. P., Barber, V. A., and Zald, H. S. 2004. Recent climate warming forces contrasting growth responses of white spruce at treeline in Alaska through temperature thresholds, Global Change Biology 10: 1724– 1736.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wittig, V. E., Ainsworth, E. A., and Long, S. P. 2007. To what extent do current and projected increases in surface ozone affect photosynthesis and stomatal conductance of trees? A meta-analytic review of the last 3 decades of experiments. Plant Cell and Environment 30: 1150–1162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wittig, V. E., Ainsworth, E. A., Naidu, S. L., et al. 2009. Quantifying the impact of current and future tropospheric ozone on tree biomass, growth, physiology and biochemistry: a quantitative meta-analysis. Global Change Biology 15: 396–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolf, A., Kozlov, M. V., and Callaghan, T. V. 2008. Impact of non-outbreak insect damage on vegetation in northern Europe will be greater than expected during a changing climate. Climate Change 87: 91–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WunderleJr., J. 2009. From the past to the globalized future of Caribbean birds. Journal Caribbean Ornithology 21: 69–79.Google Scholar
WunderleJr., J. M., Lodge, D. J., and Waide, R. B. 1992. Short-term effects of Hurricane Gilbert on terrestrial bird populations on Jamaica. Auk 109: 148–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xi, W. N., Reet, R. K., Decoster, J. K., and Urban, D. L. 2008. Tree damage risk factors associated with large, infrequent wind disturbances of Carolina forests. is the profession embracing the science, art, and practice of creating, managing, using and conserving forests and associated resources for human benefit and in a sustainable manner to meet desired goals, needs and values. 81: 317–334.Google Scholar
Yanagisawa, H., Koshimura, S., Goto, K., et al. 2009. The reduction effects of mangrove forest on a tsunami based on field surveys at Pakarang Cape, Thailand and numerical analysis. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 81: 27–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yih, K., Boucher, D. H., Vandermeer, J. H., and Zamorra, Z. 1991. Recovery of the rain forest of southestern Nicaragua after destruction by Hurricane Joan. Biotropica 23: 106–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zausen, G. L, Kolb, T. E., Bailey, J. D., and Wagner, M. R. 2005 Long-term impacts of stand management on ponderosa pine physiology and bark beetle abundance in northern Arizona: A replicated landscape study. Forest Ecology & Management 218: 291–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeng, G. M., Zhang, G., Huang, G. H., et al. 2005. Exchange of Ca2+, Mg2+ and K+ and uptake of H+, NH4+ for the subtropical forest canopies influenced by acid rain in Shaoshan forest located in Central South China. Plant Science 168: 259–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeng, H. C., Talkkari, A., Peltola, H., and Kellomaki, S. 2007. A GIS-based decision support system for risk assessment of wind damage in forest managementEnvironmental Modelling & Software 22: 1240–1249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimmerman, J. K., Everham, III, E. M., Waide, R. B., et al. 1994. Responses of tree species to hurricane winds in subtropical wet forest in Puerto Rico: implications for tropical tree life histories. Journal Tropical Ecology 82: 911–922.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimmerman, J. K., Aide, T. M., Rosario, M., et al. 1995. Effects of land management and a recent hurricane on forest structure and composition in the Luquillo Experimental Forest in Puerto Rico. Forest Ecology & Management 77: 65–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×