Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-8kt4b Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-03T03:08:33.372Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

10 - Fetal and neonatal injury as a consequence of maternal substance abuse

from Section 2 - Pregnancy, labor, and delivery complications causing brain injury

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 January 2010

By
H. Eugene Hoyme ,
Melanie A. Manning  and
Louis P. Halamek
Edited by
David K. Stevenson ,
William E. Benitz ,
Philip Sunshine ,
Susan R. Hintz  and
Maurice L. Druzin
David K. Stevenson
Affiliation:
Stanford University School of Medicine, California
William E. Benitz
Affiliation:
Stanford University School of Medicine, California
Philip Sunshine
Affiliation:
Stanford University School of Medicine, California
Susan R. Hintz
Affiliation:
Stanford University School of Medicine, California
Maurice L. Druzin
Affiliation:
Stanford University School of Medicine, California
Get access

Summary

Introduction

Substance abuse is widely prevalent in our society, and women in their child-bearing years are not immune to this epidemic. In addition to the many problems substance abuse causes for these women, it may also place the children they are carrying at risk for lifelong sequelae. Despite the paucity of information on the safety of drugs in pregnancy and lactation, virtually all pregnant women are exposed to prescription and/or non-prescription drugs in some form. The 1991 World Health Organization (WHO) International Survey on Drug Utilization in Pregnancy observed that 86% of women surveyed took medication in pregnancy, with an average of 2.9 prescriptions per woman, excluding over-the-counter and herbal preparations. It is estimated that approximately 10% of pregnant women are exposed to illicit substances. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the fetal and neonatal effects of various legal and illegal sensorium-altering substances ingested by pregnant women.

Drug distribution in pregnancy

It is important to first understand general principles of drug distribution during pregnancy, including the roles of the placenta and breast in biotransformation and secretion. The characteristics that favor transport of a drug across the lipoprotein barriers between the circulation and the central and peripheral nervous systems include high lipid solubility, minimal ionization at physiologic pH, low protein-binding, and low molecular weight.

Type
Chapter
Information
Fetal and Neonatal Brain Injury , pp. 110 - 126
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Yaffe, SJ. Introduction. In Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation, 6th edn. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2002: xv–xxii.Google Scholar
,Committee on Substance Abuse, American Academy of Pediatrics. Drug-exposed infants. Pediatrics 1995; 96: 364–7.
Kraemer, K. Placental transfer of drugs. Neonatal Netw 1997; 16: 65–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Mahone, PR, Scott, K, Sleggs, G, et al. Cocaine and metabolites in amniotic fluid may prolong fetal drug exposure. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171: 465–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brent, RL.Environmental causes of human congenital malformations: the pediatrician's role in dealing with these complex clinical problems caused by a multiplicity of environmental and genetic factors. Pediatrics 2004; 113: 957–68.Google ScholarPubMed
Snodgrass, SR. Cocaine babies: a result of multiple teratogenic influences. J Child Neurol 1994; 9: 227–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sampson, PD, Streissguth, AP, Bookstein, FL, et al. Incidence of fetal alcohol syndrome and prevalence of alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder. Teratology 1997; 56: 317–26.3.0.CO;2-U>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lupton, C, Burd, L, Harwood, R. Cost of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Am J Med Genet 2004; 127C: 42–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harwood, H. Updating estimates of the economic costs of alcohol abuse in the United States: estimates, updated methods, and data. Report Prepared by the Lewin Group. Bethesda, MD, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2000.Google Scholar
Day, NL, Richardson, GA. Prenatal alcohol exposure: a continuum of effects. Semin Perinatol 1991; 15: 271–9.Google Scholar
Jacobson, JL, Jacobson, SW, Sokol, RJ, et al. Effects of alcohol use, smoking, and illicit drug use on fetal growth in black infants. J Pediatr 1994; 124: 757–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, KL, Smith, DW, Ulleland, CW, et al. Pattern of malformation in offspring of alcoholic mothers. Lancet 1973; 1: 1267–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barr, HM, Streissguth, AP. Identifying maternal self-reported alcohol use associated with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2001; 25: 283–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stratton, KR, Howe, CJ, Battaglia, FC, eds. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Diagnosis, Epidemiology, Prevention, and Treatment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Hoyme, HE, May, PA, Kalberg, WO, et al. A practical clinical approach to diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: clarification of the 1996 Institute of Medicine criteria. Pediatrics 2005; 115: 39–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swayze, VW, Johnson, VP, Hanson, JW, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of brain anomalies in fetal alcohol syndrome. Pediatrics 1997; 99: 232–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clarren, SK, Alvord, EC, Sumi, SM, et al. Brain malformations related to prenatal exposure to ethanol. J Pediatr 1978; 92: 64–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spadoni, AD, McGee, CL, Fryer, SL, et al. Neuroimaging and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2007; 31: 231–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charness, ME, Safran, RM, Perides, G. Ethanol inhibits neural cell–cell adhesion. J Biol Chem 1994; 269: 9304–9.Google ScholarPubMed
DeJonge, MH, Zachman, RD. The effect of maternal ethanol ingestion on fetal rat heart vitamin A: a model for fetal alcohol syndrome. Pediatr Res 1995; 37: 418–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Naus, CCG, Bechberger, JF. Effect of prenatal ethanol exposure on postnatal neural gene expression in the rat. Dev Genet 1991; 12: 293–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, MW. Prenatal exposure to ethanol delays the schedule and rate of migration of neurons to rat somatosensory cortex. Fifth Congress of the International Society for Biomedical Research on Alcoholism, Toronto, Canada, 1990.Google Scholar
Holzman, C, Paneth, N, Little, R, et al. Perinatal brain injury in premature infants born to mothers using alcohol in pregnancy. Pediatrics 1995; 95: 66–73.Google ScholarPubMed
Armant, DR, Saunders, . Exposure of embryonic cells to alcohol: contrasting effects during preimplantation and postimplantation development. Semin Perinatol 1996; 20: 127–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ahlgren, SC, Thakur, V, Bronner-Fraser, M. Sonic hedgehog rescues cranial neural crest from cell death induced by ethanol exposure. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002; 99: 10476–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peng, Y, Yang, PH, Ng, SSM, et al. A critical role of Pax6 in alcohol induced fetal microcephaly. Neurobiol Dis 2004; 16: 370–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chrisman, K, Kenney, R, Comin, J, et al. Gestational ethanol exposure disrupts the expression of Fgf8 and Sonic hedgehog during limb patterning. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 2004; 70: 163–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Druse, MJ, Kuo, A, Tajuddin, N. Effects of in utero ethanol exposure on the developing serotonergic system. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1991; 15: 678–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pinazo-Duran, MD, Renau-Piqueras, J, Guerri, C. Developmental changes in the optic nerve related to ethanol consumption in pregnant rats: analysis of the ethanol-exposed optic nerve. Teratology 1993; 48: 305–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Church, MW, Gerkin, KP. Hearing disorders in children with fetal alcohol syndrome: findings from case reports. Pediatrics 1988; 82: 147–54.Google ScholarPubMed
Syslak, PH, Nathaniel, EJH, Novak, C, et al. Fetal alcohol effects on the postnatal development of the rat myocardium: an ultrastructural and morphometric analysis. Exp Mol Pathol 1994; 60: 158–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gage, JC, Sulik, KK. Pathogenesis of ethanol-induced hydronephrosis and hydroureter as demonstrated following in vivo exposure of mouse embryos. Teratology 1991; 44: 299–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Autti-Rämö, I, Fagerlund, A, Ervalahti, N, et al. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in Finland: clinical delineation of 77 older children and adolescents. Am J Med Genet A 2006; 140: 137–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Day, NL, Richardson, G, Robles, N, et al. Effect of prenatal alcohol exposure on growth and morphology of offspring at 8 months of age. Pediatrics 1990; 85: 748–52.Google ScholarPubMed
Breese, CR, D'Costa, A, Ingram, RL, et al. Long-term suppression of insulin-like growth factor-1 in rats after in utero ethanol exposure: relationship to somatic growth. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1993; 264: 448–57.Google ScholarPubMed
Mauceri, HJ, Lee, W, Conway, S. Effect of ethanol on insulin-like growth factor-II release from fetal organs. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1994; 18: 35–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guo, W, Gregg, JP, Fonkalsrud, EW. Effect of maternal ethanol intake on fetal rabbit gastrointestinal development. J Pediatr Surg 1994; 29: 1030–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
,American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Breastfeeding: maternal and infant aspects. Educational Bulletin Number 258. Washington, DC: ACOG, 2000.Google Scholar
Little, RE, Anderson, KW, Ervin, CH, et al. Maternal alcohol use during breast-feeding and infant mental and motor development at one year. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 425–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham, JM, Hanson, JW, Darby, BL, et al. Independent dysmorphology evaluations at birth and 4 years of age for children exposed to varying amounts of alcohol in utero. Pediatrics 1988; 81: 772–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Streissguth, AP. The behavioral teratology of alcohol: performance, behavioral, and intellectual deficits in prenatally exposed children. In West, JR, ed., Alcohol and Brain Development. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1986: 3–44.Google Scholar
Streissguth, AP, Aase, JM, Clarren, SK, et al. Fetal alcohol syndrome in adolescents and adults. JAMA 1991; 265: 1961–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirkland, SA, Dodds, , Brosky, G. The natural history of smoking during pregnancy among women in Nova Scotia. CMAJ 2000; 163: 281–2.Google ScholarPubMed
Kendrick, JS, Merritt, RK. Women and smoking: an update for the 1990s. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 175: 528–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Secker-Walker, RH, Vacek, PM, Flynn, BS, et al. Smoking in pregnancy, exhaled carbon monoxide, and birth weight. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 89: 648–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Visnjevac, V, Mikov, M. Smoking and carboxyhemoglobin concentrations in mothers and their newborn infants. Toxicology 1986; 5: 175–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Jazayeri, A, Tsibris, JCM, Spellacy, WN. Umbilical cord plasma erythropoietin levels in pregnancies complicated by maternal smoking. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 178: 433–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jordanov, JS. Cotinine concentrations in amniotic fluid and urine of smoking, passive smoking and non-smoking pregnant women at term and in the urine of their neonates on the 1st day of life. Eur J Pediatr 1990; 149: 734–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, IM, Plocienik, K, Stahle, S, et al. Impact of maternal cigarette smoking on fetal growth and body composition. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 183: 883–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bardy, AH, Seppälä, T, Lillsunde, P, et al. Objectively measured tobacco exposure during pregnancy: neonatal effects and relation to maternal smoking. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1993; 100: 721–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cliver, SP, Goldenberg, RL, Cutter, GR, et al. The effect of cigarette smoking on neonatal anthropometric measurements. Obstet Gynecol 1995; 85: 625–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Resnik, R, Brink, GW, Wilkes, M. Catecholamine-mediated reduction in uterine blood flow after nicotine infusion in the pregnant ewe. J Clin Invest 1979; 63: 1133–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burton, GJ, Palmer, ME, Dalton, KJ. Morphometric differences between the placental vasculature of non-smokers, smokers and ex-smokers. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1989; 96: 907–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gabrial, R, Alsat, E, Evain-Brion, D. Alteration of epidermal growth factor receptor in placental membranes of smokers: relationship with intrauterine growth retardation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 170: 1238–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slotkin, TA, McCook, EC, Lappi, SE, et al. Altered development of basal and forskolin-stimulated adenylate cyclase activity in brain regions of rats exposed to nicotine prenatally. Dev Brain Res 1992; 68: 233–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khoury, MJ, Gomez-Frias, M, Mulinare, J. Does maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy cause cleft lip and palate in offspring?Am J Dis Child 1989; 143: 333–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Ananth, CV, Savitz, DA, Luther, ER. Maternal cigarette smoking as a risk factor for placental abruption, placenta previa, and uterine bleeding in pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol 1996; 144: 881–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castles, A, Adams, K, Melvin, CL, et al. Effects of smoking during pregnancy: five meta-analyses. Am J Prev Med 1999; 16: 208–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Naeye, RL. Abruptio placentae and placenta previa: frequency, perinatal mortality, and cigarette smoking. Obstet Gynecol 1980; 55: 701–4.Google ScholarPubMed
Ananth, CV, Getahun, D, Peltier, MR, et al. Placental abruption in term and preterm gestations: evidence for heterogeneity in clinical pathways. Obstet Gynecol 2006; 107: 785–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Usta, IM, Hobeika, EM, Musa, AA, et al. Placenta previa–accreta: risk factors and complications. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005; 193: 1045–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nabet, C, Ancel, PY, Burguet, A, et al. Smoking during pregnancy and preterm birth according to obstetric history: French national perinatal surveys. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2005; 19: 88–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salihu, HM, Sharma, PP, Getahun, G. Prenatal tobacco use and risk of stillbirth: a case–control and bi-directional case–crossover study. Nicotine Tob Res 2008; 10: 159–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arbeille, P, Bosc, M, Vaillant, MC, et al. Nicotine-induced changes in the cerebral circulation in ovine fetuses. Am J Perinatol 1992; 79: 645–8.Google Scholar
Franco, P, Groswasser, J, Hassid, S, et al. Prenatal exposure to cigarette smoking is associated with a decrease in arousal in infants. J Pediatr 1999; 135: 34–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoffman, HJ, Hillman, LS. Epidemiology of the sudden infant death syndrome: maternal, neonatal, and postneonatal risk factors. Clin Perinatol 1992; 19: 717–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Takashima, S, Armstrong, D, Becker, , et al. Cerebral hypoperfusion in the sudden infant death syndrome, brainstem gliosis and vasculature. Ann Neurol 1978; 4: 257–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drews, CD, Murphy, CC, Yeargin-Allsop, M, et al. The relationship between idiopathic mental retardation and maternal smoking during pregnancy. Pediatrics 1996; 97: 547–53.Google ScholarPubMed
Olds, DL, Henderson, CR, Tatelbaum, R. Intellectual impairment in children of women who smoke cigarettes during pregnancy. Pediatrics 1994; 93: 221–7.Google ScholarPubMed
John, EM, Savitz, DA, Sandler, DP. Prenatal exposure to parents' smoking and childhood cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1991; 133: 123–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charlton, A. Children and passive smoking: a review. J Fam Pract 1994; 38: 267–77.Google ScholarPubMed
Paulson, RB, Shanfeld, J, Mullet, D, et al. Prenatal smokeless tobacco effects on the rat fetus. J Craniofac Genet Dev Biol 1994; 14: 16–25.Google ScholarPubMed
Ostrea, EM, Knapp, DK, Romera, A, et al. Meconium analysis to assess fetal exposure to nicotine by active and passive maternal smoking. J Pediatr 1994; 124: 471–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Makin, J, Fried, PA, Watkinson, B. A comparison of active and passive smoking during pregnancy: long-term effects. Neurotoxicol Teratol 1991; 13: 5–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witschi, H, Lundgaard, SM, Rajini, P, et al. Effects of exposure to nicotine and to sidestream smoke on pregnancy outcome in rats. Toxicol Lett 1994; 71: 279–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, DL. Paternal smoking and fetal health. Lancet 1991; 337: 123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klonoff-Cohen, HS, Edelstein, SL, Lefkowitz, ES, et al. The effect of passive smoking and tobacco exposure through breast milk on sudden infant death syndrome. JAMA 1995; 273: 795–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Selden, BS, Clark, RF, Curry, SC. Marijuana. Emerg Med Clin North Am 1990; 8: 8527–39.Google ScholarPubMed
Wu, TC, Tashkin, DP, Djahed, B, et al. Pulmonary hazards of smoking marijuana as compared with tobacco. N Engl J Med 1988; 318: 347–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cornelius, MD, Taylor, PM, Geva, D, et al. Prenatal tobacco and marijuana use among adolescents: effects on offspring gestational age, growth, and morphology. Pediatrics 1995; 95: 738–43.Google ScholarPubMed
English, DR, Hulse, GK, Milne, E, et al. Maternal cannabis use and birth weight: a meta-analysis. Addiction 1997; 92: 1553–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fried, PA, Watkinson, B, Gray, R. Growth from birth to early adolescence in offspring prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marijuana. Neurotoxicol Teratol 1999; 21: 513–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fried, PA, Makin, JE. Neonatal behavioral correlates of prenatal exposure to marijuana, cigarettes and alcohol in a low risk population. Neurotoxicol Teratol 1987; 9: 1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahl, RE, Scher, MS, Williamson, , et al. A longitudinal study of prenatal marijuana use: effects on sleep and arousal at age 3 years. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1995; 149: 145–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fried, PA. Prenatal exposure to marijuana and tobacco during infancy, early and middle childhood: effects and an attempt at synthesis. Arch Toxicol Suppl 1995; 17: 233–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fried, PA. The Ottawa Prenatal Prospective Study (OPPS): methodologic issues and findings. It's easy to throw the baby out with the bathwater. Life Sci 1995; 56: 2159–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farrar, HC, Kearns, GL. Cocaine: clinical pharmacology and toxicology. J Pediatr 1989; 115: 665–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bailey, DN. Cocaine and cocaethylene binding to human placenta in vitro. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997; 177: 527–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, KL. Developmental pathogenesis of defects associated with prenatal cocaine exposure: fetal vascular disruption. Clin Perinatol 1991; 18: 139–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arbeille, P, Maulik, D, Salihagic, A, et al. Effect of long-term cocaine administration to pregnant ewes on fetal hemodynamics, oxygenation, and growth. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 90: 795–802.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monga, M, Chmielowiec, S, Andres, RL, et al. Cocaine alters placental production of thromboxane and prostacyclin. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171: 965–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burkett, G, Yasin, SY, Palow, D, et al. Patterns of cocaine binging: effect on pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171: 372–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dicke, JM, Verges, DK, Polakoski, KL. The effects of cocaine on neutral amino acid uptake by human placental basal membrane vesicles. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171: 485–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandstra, ES, Morrow, CE, Anthony, JC, et al. Intrauterine growth of full-term infants: impact of prenatal cocaine exposure. Pediatrics 2001; 108: 1309–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bateman, DA, Chiriboga, CA. Dose–response effect of cocaine on newborn head circumference. Pediatrics 2000; 106: e33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuhn, L, Kline, J, Ng, S, et al. Cocaine use during pregnancy and intrauterine growth retardation: new insights based on maternal hair tests. Am J Epidemiol 2000; 152: 112–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Viscarello, RR, Ferguson, DD, Nores, J, et al. Limb–body wall complex associated with cocaine abuse: further evidence of cocaine's teratogenicity. Obstet Gynecol 1992; 80: 523–6.Google ScholarPubMed
Hoyme, HE, Jones, KL, Dixon, SD, et al. Prenatal cocaine exposure and fetal vascular disruption. Pediatrics 1990; 85: 743–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Dominguez, R, Vila-Coro, AA, Slopis, JM, et al. Brain and ocular abnormalities in infants with in utero exposure to cocaine and other street drugs. Am J Dis Child 1991; 145: 688–95.Google ScholarPubMed
Chavez, GF, Mulinare, J, Cordero, JF. Maternal cocaine use during early pregnancy as a risk factor for congenital urogenital anomalies. JAMA 1989; 262: 795–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kain, ZN, Kain, TS, Scarpelli, EM. Cocaine exposure in utero: perinatal development and neonatal manifestations: review. Clin Toxicol 1992; 30: 607–36.Google ScholarPubMed
Dinsmoor, MJ, Irons, SJ, Christmas, JT. Preterm rupture of the membranes associated with recent cocaine use. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171: 305–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kliegman, RM, Madura, D, Kiwi, R, et al. Relation of maternal cocaine use to the risks of prematurity and low birth weight. J Pediatr 1994; 124: 751–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iriye, BK, Bristow, RE, Hsu, CD, et al. Uterine rupture associated with recent antepartum cocaine abuse. Obstet Gynecol 1994; 83: 840–1.Google ScholarPubMed
Macones, GA, Sehdev, HM, Parry, S, et al. The association between maternal cocaine use and placenta previa. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997; 177: 1097–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Czyrko, C, Del Pin, CA, O'Neill, JA, et al. Maternal cocaine abuse and necrotizing enterocolitis: outcome and survival. J Pediatr Surg 1991; 26: 414–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Büyükünal, C, Kiliç, N, Dervisoglu, S, et al. Maternal cocaine abuse resulting in necrotizing enterocolitis: an experimental study in a rat model. Acta Paediatr 1994; 396: 91–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chasnoff, IJ, Bussey, ME, Savich, R, et al. Perinatal cerebral infarction and maternal cocaine use. J Pediatr 1986; 108: 456–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singer, LT, Yamashita, TS, Hawkins, S, et al. Increased incidence of intraventricular hemorrhage and developmental delay in cocaine-exposed, very low birth weight infants. J Pediatr 1994; 124: 765–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sims, ME, Walther, FJ. Antenatal brain injury and maternal cocaine use. J Perinatol 1989; 9: 349–50.Google ScholarPubMed
Behnke, M, Eyler, FD, Conlon, M, et al. Incidence and description of structural brain abnormalities in newborns exposed to cocaine. J Pediatr 1998; 132: 291–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mott, SH, Packer, RJ, Soldin, SJ. Neurologic manifestations of cocaine exposure in childhood. Pediatrics 1994; 93: 557–60.Google ScholarPubMed
Chen, C, Duara, S, Neto, GS, et al. Respiratory instability in neonates with in utero exposure to cocaine. J Pediatr 1991; 119: 111–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tronick, EZ, Frank, DA, Cabral, H, et al. Late dose–response effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on newborn neurobehavioral performance. Pediatrics 1996; 98: 76–83.Google ScholarPubMed
Chan, K, Dodd, PA, Day, L, et al. Fetal catecholamine, cardiovascular, and neurobehavioral responses to cocaine. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992; 167: 1616–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knapp, S, Mandell, AJ. Narcotic drugs: effect on the serotonin biosynthetic systems of the brain. Science 1972; 177: 1209–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durand, DJ, Espinoza, AM, Nickerson, BG. Association between prenatal cocaine exposure and sudden infant death syndrome. J Pediatr 1990; 117: 909–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauchner, H, Zuckerman, B, McClain, M, et al. Risk of sudden infant death syndrome among infants with in utero exposure to cocaine. J Pediatr 1988; 113: 831–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayes, LC, Granger, RH, Frank, MA, et al. Neurobehavioral profiles of neonates exposed to cocaine prenatally. Pediatrics 1993; 91: 778–83.Google ScholarPubMed
Eisen, LN, Field, TM, Bandstra, ES, et al. Perinatal cocaine effects on neonatal stress behavior and performance on the Brazelton scale. Pediatrics 1991; 88: 477–80.Google ScholarPubMed
Eyler, FD, Behnke, M, Conlon, M, et al. Birth outcome from a prospective, matched study of prenatal crack/cocaine use. I. Interactive and dose effects on health and growth. Pediatrics 1998; 101: 229–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eyler, FD, Behnke, M, Conlon, M, et al. Birth outcome from a prospective, matched study of prenatal crack/cocaine use. II. Interactive and dose effects on neurobehavioral assessment. Pediatrics 1998; 101: 237–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frank, DA, Augustyn, M, Knight, WG, et al. Growth, development, and behavior in early childhood following prenatal cocaine exposure: a systematic review. JAMA 2001; 285: 1613–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roland, EH, Volpe, JJ. Effect of maternal cocaine use on the fetus and newborn: review of the literature. Pediatr Neurosci 1989; 15: 88–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oro, A, Dixon, S. Perinatal cocaine and methamphetamine exposure: maternal and neonatal correlates. J Pediatr 1987; 111: 571–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chasnoff, IJ, Lewis, , Squires, L. Cocaine intoxication in a breast-fed infant. Pediatrics 1987; 80: 836–8.Google Scholar
Chaney, NE, Franke, J, Waddington, WB. Cocaine convulsions in a breast-feeding baby. J Pediatr 1988; 112: 134–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulse, GK, Milne, E, English, DR, et al. The relationship between maternal use of heroin and methadone and infant birth weight. Addiction 1997; 92: 1571–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barg, J, Rius, A, Bem, WT, et al. Differential development of beta-endorphin and mu-opioid binding sites in mouse brain. Dev Brain Res 1992; 66: 71–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suguihara, C, Bancalari, E. Substance abuse during pregnancy: effects on respiratory function in the infant. Semin Perinatol 1991; 15: 302–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Olson, GD, Lees, MH. Ventilatory response to carbon dioxide of infants following chronic prenatal methadone exposure. J Pediatr 1980; 96: 983–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bunikowski, R, Grimmer, I, Heiser, A, et al. Neurodevelopmental outcome after prenatal exposure to opiates. Eur J Pediatr 1998; 157: 724–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smialek, JE, Monforte, JR, Aronow, R, et al. Methadone deaths in children: a continuing problem. JAMA 1977; 238: 2516–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
,Committee on Drugs, American Academy of Pediatrics. Transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics 1989; 84: 924–36.Google Scholar
Idänpäan-Heikkilä, JE, Jouppila, PI, Puolakka, JO, et al. Placental transfer and fetal metabolism of diazepam in early pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1971; 109: 1011–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laegreid, L, Olegärd, R, Walström, J, et al. Teratogenic effects of benzodiazepine use during pregnancy. J Pediatr 1989; 114: 126–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eros, E, Czeizel, AE, Rockenbauer, M, et al. A population-based case control teratologic study of nitrazepam, medazepam, tofisopam, alprazolum and clonazepam treatment during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2002; 101: 147–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dessens, AB, Cohen-Kettenis, PT, Mellenbergh, GJ, et al. Association of prenatal phenobarbital and phenytoin exposure with small head size at birth and with learning problems. Acta Paediatr 2000; 89: 533–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rementeria, JL, Bhatt, K. Withdrawal symptoms in neonates from intrauterine exposure to diazepam. J Pediatr 1977; 90: 123–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stek, AM, Baker, RS, Fisher, BK, et al. Fetal responses to maternal and fetal methamphetamine administration in sheep. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 173: 1592–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, BB, Snell, LM, Gilstrap, LC. Methamphetamine abuse during pregnancy: outcome and fetal effects. Obstet Gynecol 1988; 72: 541–4.Google ScholarPubMed
Ramin, SM, Little, BB, Trimmer, KJ, et al. Peripartum methamphetamine use in a large urban population. J Maternal Fetal Med 1994; 3: 101–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nasif, FJ, Cuadra, GR, Ramirez, OA. Permanent alteration of cerebral noradrenergic system by prenatally administered amphetamine. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 1999; 112: 181–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tavares, MA, Silva, MC. Differential effects of prenatal exposure to cocaine and amphetamine on growth parameters and morphometry of the prefrontal cortex in the rat. Ann NY Acad Sci 1996; 801: 256–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tavares, MA, Silva, MC, Silva-Araujo, A, et al. Effects of prenatal exposure to amphetamine in the medial prefrontal cortex of the rat. Int J Dev Neurosci 1996; 14: 585–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, L, Smith, LM, LoPresti, C, et al. Smaller subcortical volumes and cognitive deficits in children with prenatal methamphetamine exposure. Psychiatry Res 2004; 132: 95–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dixon, SD, Bejar, R. Echoencephalographic findings in neonates associated with maternal cocaine and methamphetamine use: incidence and clinical correlates. J Pediatr 1989; 115: 770–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ericksson, M, Larsson, C, Zetterström, R. Amphetamine addiction and pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1981; 60: 253–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oro, AS, Dixon, SP. Perinatal cocaine and methamphetamine exposure: maternal and neonatal correlates. J Pediatr 1987; 111: 571–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baldridge, EB, Bessen, HA. Phencyclidine. Emerg Med Clin North Am 1990; 8: 541–50.Google ScholarPubMed
Strauss, AA, Modanlou, HD, Bosu, SK. Neonatal manifestations of maternal phencyclidene (PCP) abuse. Pediatrics 1981; 68: 550–2.Google ScholarPubMed
Mattson, MP, Rychlik, B, Cheng, B. Degenerative and axon outgrowth-altering effects of phencyclidine in human fetal cerebral cortical cells. J Pharmacol 1992; 31: 279–91.Google ScholarPubMed
Golden, NL, Kuhnert, BR, Sokol, RJ, et al. Neonatal manifestations of maternal phencyclidene exposure. J Perinat Med 1987; 15: 185–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rahbar, F, Fomufod, A, White, D, et al. Impact of intrauterine exposure to phencyclidene (PCP) and cocaine on neonates. J Natl Med Assoc 1993; 85: 349–52.Google ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, KR, Petrucha, RA, Pitts, FN, et al. PCP in amniotic fluid and breast milk: case report. J Clin Psychiatry 1983; 44: 269–70.Google ScholarPubMed
Eller, JL, Morton, JA. Bizarre deformities in offspring of users of lysergic acid diethylamide. N Engl J Med 1970; 283: 395–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hecht, F, Beals, RK, Lees, MH, et al. Lysergic-acid-diethylamide and cannabis as possible teratogens in man. Lancet 1968; 2: 1087.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carakushansky, G, Neu, RL, Gardner, LI. Lysergide and cannabis as possible teratogens in man. Lancet 1969; 1: 150–1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobson, CB, Berlin, CM. Possible reproductive detriments in LSD users. JAMA 1972; 222: 1367–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linden, CH. Volatile substances of abuse. Emerg Med Clin North Am 1990; 8: 559–78.Google ScholarPubMed
Jones, HE, Balster, RL. Inhalant abuse in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 1998; 25: 153–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ghantous, H, Danielsson, BRG. Placental transfer and distribution of toluene, xylene, and benzene and their metabolites during gestation in mice. Biol Res Pregnancy 1986; 7: 98–105.Google ScholarPubMed
Stoltenbeurg-Didinger, G, Altenkirch, H, Wagner, M. Neurotoxicity of organic solvent mixtures: embryotoxicity and fetotoxicity. Neurotoxicol Teratol 1990; 12: 585–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gospe, SM, Zhou, SS. Prenatal exposure to toluene results in abnormal neurogenesis and migration in rat somatosensory cortex. Pediatr Res 2000; 47: 362–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gospe, SM, Zhou, SS. Toluene abuse embryopathy: longitudinal neurodevelopmental effects of prenatal exposure to toluene in rats. Reprod Toxicol 1998; 12: 119–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearson, MA, Hoyme, HE, Seaver, LH, et al. Toluene embryopathy: delineation of the phenotype and comparison with fetal alcohol syndrome. Pediatrics 1994; 93: 211–15.Google ScholarPubMed
Schauben, JL. Adulterants and substitutes. Emerg Med Clin North Am 1990; 8: 595–611.Google ScholarPubMed
Schutzman, DL, Frankenfield-Chernicoff, M, Clatterbaugh, HE, et al. Incidence of intrauterine cocaine exposure in a suburban setting. Pediatrics 1991; 88: 825–7.Google Scholar
Chasnoff, IJ, Landres, HJ, Barrett, ME. The prevalence of illicit-drug or alcohol use during pregnancy and discrepancies in mandatory reporting in Pinellas County, Florida. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1202–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrar, HC, Kearns, GL. Cocaine: clinical pharmacology and toxicology. J Pediatr 1989; 115: 665–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryan, RM, Wagner, CL, Schultz, JM, et al. Meconium analysis for improved identification of infants exposed to cocaine in utero. J Pediatr 1994; 125: 435–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saitoh, M, Uzuka, M, Sakamoto, M. Rate of hair growth. Adv Biol Skin 1969; 9: 183–201.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, WA, Hill, VA, Bland, WH. Hair analysis for drug abuse. J Forensic Sci 1989; 34: 1433–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marques, PR, Tippetts, AS, Branch, DG. Cocaine in the hair of mother–infant pairs: quantitative analysis and correlations with urine measurements and self report. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 1993; 19: 159–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×