MISSIONARY ACTIVITY AND THE FIRST PHOTOGRAPHY

There had been French missionary involvement in Vietnam from the time of the Jesuit priest Alexandre de Rhodes, who arrived in 1620. He was expelled in 1630 by the Tonkin ruler Trinh Trang, who was becoming increasingly concerned about the spread of Catholicism in his realm. Subsequent rulers alternated between tolerance and persecution, but by the early nineteenth century Vietnam had become a hostile environment for any follower of the Faith. Emperor Minh Mang issued a proclamation making the practice of Christianity illegal in 1825. Vietnam also became increasingly isolationist. In the 1830s, some French missionaries who defied the ban were captured, tortured and executed. Foreigners, especially missionaries, were not welcome in Vietnam. When Minh Mang died in 1841, his eldest son Thieu Tri continued with a policy of isolationism and imprisoned some missionaries. Bishop Dominique Lefèbvre was arrested and condemned to death. In 1845 Admiral Jean-Baptiste Cécille was sent to Vietnam and successfully negotiated the Bishop's release. It was at this time that the earliest known photographs of Vietnam were taken by Jules Itier (see Chapter 1).

PROTECTING THE MISSIONARIES

In 1847 French warships were sent to Tourane (present-day Da Nang) to secure the release of Lefèbvre, who had again entered Vietnam and been arrested, and another imprisoned missionary. Fighting broke out and four Vietnamese ships were sunk, resulting in around 1,200 deaths. Sources differ over whether Lefèbvre and his colleague were released before or after the battle ensued.

Emperor Tu Duc ascended the throne in 1847 and followed the example set by his predecessors in minimizing contact with the outside world and discouraging the practice and spread of Christianity. Some trade with the West was tolerated but trading activities were small-scale and undertaken under strict supervision. The court remained suspicious about foreign plans, and China's defeat in the First Opium War (1839–42), together with its partial loss of sovereignty, had heightened concerns. It also had to deal with internal dissent and worried about real or imagined collusion between rebel forces and foreign agents aligned with the growing number of Catholic converts.

By the middle of the century, it is estimated that some 300,000 Vietnamese had been converted and foreign missionaries were increasingly ignoring royal edicts by illegally entering the country and preaching to the native population.