Once more, many examples could be dealt with under this heading. Three were chosen, partly for their diversity: (a) who controls the educational system?; (b) teaching the investiture contest; (c) stimulating RCR in the classroom.

Who controls the educational system?

Since the dawn of humanity, the question of who is in control, that is, who is the more powerful, has, as a rule, been decided by an open or a covert fight, from which a victor emerges. Not infrequently, that also goes for the educational system. Dictatorships use it to produce obedient followers. But even in democracies ideological fights about the access conditions and the curriculum are not uncommon (e.g., note 1, p. 105).

What should be done according to the RCR heuristic? Inspired by the issue of the investiture contest (see below), the desideratum would be to give roughly ‘equal’ power and responsibilities to the state authorities, the school itself (including some sharing with the students), and the parents. What is the actual situation?

In most countries monolithic solutions are more visible as regards the control of the educational system(s) than stipulated by the desideratum. In other words, either the state, often a ministry of education or another administration such as a municipality, controls everything (finance, staffing, curriculum, entrance test and examination procedures, etc.) or the control is largely in the hands of a school or university itself, particularly if it is private.