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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2024

Hanspeter Kriesi ,
Argyrios Altiparmakis ,
Ábel Bojár  and
Ioana-Elena Oană
Hanspeter Kriesi
Affiliation:
European University Institute, Florence
Argyrios Altiparmakis
Affiliation:
European University Institute, Florence
Ábel Bojár
Affiliation:
21 Research Center, Budapest
Ioana-Elena Oană
Affiliation:
European University Institute, Florence

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Type
Chapter
Information
Coming to Terms with the European Refugee Crisis , pp. 397 - 411
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NC
This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

Index

actors (policy)
characteristics of, 55
civil society, 53–58, 93, 105–106, 109–110, 113, 122, 123, 130–131, 144, 146–147, 155–162, 230–232, 365
EU institutions, 53–58, 104, 109–110, 123–132, 130–131, 155–162, 230–232, 246–247, 365–366
foreign governments/third countries, 124–132, 246–247, 365–366
governing parties, 53–58, 124–132, 230–232, 365–366
national governments, 53–58, 102–109, 124–132, 157–162, 230–232, 246–247, 365–366
opposition parties, 53–58, 109–110, 124–132, 144, 157–162, 365–366
supranational organizations, 53–58, 123–132, 155–162, 365
Alfano, Angelino, 260–261
Algeria, 111
Alternative für Deutschland (AfD), 83, 148, 210, 340–342, 345, 348, 353
framing of refugee crisis, 204–206
Amnesty International, 125, 164
analysis
core sentence (CSA), 41, 59
discourse (speech), 60, 203–210
framework of, 9–10, 358–361
policy process (PPA), 14, 41, 46–50, 360
protest event (PEA), 47
time series cross section (TSCS), 224, 232–241
units of, 51, 223, 224, 232, 249
Anglican Church, 139
Anne Will (TV talk show), 285
Aquarius (rescue vessel), 105, 263
Arab Spring, 71
asylum
applications (statistics), 4, 65, 73–77
procedures, 67, 229, 289–291
rejection rates (2010–14), 43
asylum policy, 28
in Australia, 68
in Canada, 68
contentiousness of, 4, 5, 13, 305–311
degree of contestability, 228–230
migrant “pushbacks”, 293, 303
in the United States, 68
asylum rules
reforms to, 47, 91, 95–101, 109–117, 123, 139–142, 146–147, 162–168, 264–272
asylum seekers
Afghan, 42, 70, 293
deaths at sea, 98, 104, 195–196, 259–260, 262–264
Eritrean, 111
human rights violated, 105, 177, 293
integration of, 4, 28, 70, 73, 111, 110–112, 115–116
Iranian, 111
Iraqi, 42, 111
Nigerian, 42
Pakistani, 42
reception (accommodation), 4, 27, 66, 67, 70, 99, 105, 290–295, 363, 373
resettlement/relocation, 100–103, 113–116, 192–193, 229, 269–272
opposition to, 109–110, 264–267, 309–311
returns, 94–95, 98, 99, 111–112, 139–141
secondary movements, 27–29, 32, 363
Syrian, 4, 99, 106–107, 111, 113, 147
Ukranian, 376–377
unaccompanied minors, 99, 114, 143, 293
Australia
asylum applications (statistics), 68
asylum policy, 68
Austria, 5, 263, 270, 286, 302
2016 presidential elections, 261
asylum applications (statistics), 68, 73–77
asylum regime, 43–44
historical development, 71–72
framing of refugee crisis in, 204–219
immigration issue
political salience, 89–90, 336–353
public attitudes, 77–80, 311–329
party system, 338, 338–353
policy conflicts (refugee crisis)
actors, 105–106
intragovernmental, 132–139
partisan, 132–139, 179–183, 185–189
societal, 105, 132–139
supranational (vertical), 132–139, 247
transnational (horizontal), 104, 125, 132–139, 261
policy episodes (refugee crisis), 91–93, 126–129, 159
“Durchgriffsrecht” (Right to Intervene) policy (2015), 46, 105–106, 110, 132–139, 179–189, 274
Asylum Law reform (2017–19), 46, 111, 132–139, 179–183, 185–189, 274
Balkan Route Closure (2015–16), 46, 105–106, 132–139, 185–189, 245, 247, 255, 274
Border controls reimposed (2015–16), 46, 105–106, 132–139, 185–189, 261, 274
Integration Law (2015–17), 46, 110, 132–139, 179, 183–189, 274
public opinion
EU asylum policy, 308–311
immigration, 77–80, 311–329, 323
radical right in, 80–83, 89–90, 173–174, 180, 261, 301, 345–351, 376
as transit state, 21–22, 42, 43, 89, 308, 362, 363
Willkommenskultur (welcome culture), 105
Austrian People’s Party (ÖVP), 80–81, 138, 350–351
coalition with FPÖ (2017–19), 173–174, 183–186
framing of refugee crisis, 204
Avramopoulos, Dimitris, 144, 253, 261, 288
Balkan migration route, 3, 138, 268
closure, 79, 98, 103, 106, 165, 245, 255, 286
Belarus, 373–374
Benelux countries, 66, See also the Netherlands; Luxembourg
Berlusconi, Silvio, 351
Besancenot, Olivier, 144–146
bias
in election campaigning, 265
panel data, 232–234
selection, 50
simultaneity, 234, 241
border control measures, 28, 90
degree of policy contestability, 228–230
Fence Building, 105–106, 131, 142, 245–246, 264–267, 303, 370, 373–374
re-bordering, 10, 20–21, 29, 39, 116, 121, 245–246, 357, 366
reforms to, 47, 95–101, 102–109, 123, 139–144, 147–150, 162–168, 234, 235, 238–239, 264–267
borders/boundaries
EU external, 10, 11, 20–21, 29, 65, 90, 95–101, 106, 114, 121, 143, 155, 165, 169, 245–248, 264, 294, 357
politicization of, 20, 21
as prerequisite for political community, 19–20
Brexit, 5, 82, 146, 211, 216, 303, 344, 351
British Labour Party, 113, 139, 347–349
New Labour, 70
Bulgaria, 106, 159, 270, 286
Cameron, David, 161, 280
government of (2010–15), 70, 139
government of (2015–16), 139, 147, 174
Canada
asylum policy, 68
Cazeneuve, Bernard, 145, 260
CDS – People’s Party (Portugal), 328
Central and Eastern Europe
communist legacies, 302
party systems, 23, 341
public opinion, 97
Chapel Hill survey, 181, 191
Christian Democrats (Germany), 110–112, 138, 147–150, 179, 213, 328, 349, 352
coalition with SPD (2013–18), 138, 183–186
Ciotti, Eric, 145
Civic Democratic Party (ODS, Czechia), 302
climate change, 226
coalition(s)
governing, 70, 104, 110–112, 122, 147–150, 173–174, 183–186, 189–191, 282–285, 342, 367
fragmentation in, 173–177
ideological distance, 173–177
grand, 24, 37, 110–112, 122, 138, 147, 148, 174, 181, 183–185, 190, 194, 269
transnational, 123, 159, 164–166, 254–256, 365
Cold War
end of, 63, 70, 72
Soviet bloc refugees during, 72
Collomb, Gérard, 113
Common European Asylum System (CEAS). See EU asylum policy
Conservative Party (UK), 82, 344, 347, 351, 367
coalition with Liberal Democrats (2010–15), 70, 139
framing of refugee crisis, 204, 211–219
government of (2015–16), 139, 147, 174
Conte, Giuseppe, 161, 179, 189–191, 263, 270
government of (2018–21), 262
Corbyn, Jeremy, 146, 347–349
Council of Europe, 125, 142, 143
Council of Ministers, 21, 33, 96, 153, 157, 268
Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) in, 34, 97
Reverse Qualified Majority Voting (RQMV) in, 34
Council of the European Union, 266, 294, 373, 376
Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), 23
Covid-19 crisis, 4, 101, 103, 113, 258, 303, 314, 356, 373, 374
comparisons with refugee crisis, 26
intergovernmental coordination in, 11
crisis
characteristics (urgency, uncertainty), 25, 27
management, 12, 16–17, 31, 36, 121, 146, 152, 156, 171, 178, 290–295, 356
as “opportunity structure”, 36, 86, 284, 354, 372
policymaking in, 3, 33–34
“rally-around-the-flag” effects, 17, 28, 34, 227, 235, 241, 369
political entrepreneurs and (“crisisification”), 13, 30, 92–93
public attitudes in Europe toward, 5, 37, 302–305
Croatia, 105, 106, 142, 257
Czech Republic, 97, 159, 165
as bystander state, 363
Davutoğlu, Ahmet, 161, 279, 285–286
de Maizière, Thomas, 149, 260
democracy(ies)
audience, 15
as discursive frame, 177, 187–191, 193, 199–219, 266
illiberal, 375
policymaking in, 15
social foundations of, 20
Democratic Coalition (Hungary), 192–193
Denmark, 112
Der Spiegel, 148
Detention Centers (refugees), 105, 292, See also Hotspots (camps)
di Maio, Luigi, 190
Dobrindt, Alexander, 270
Doctors Without Borders. See Médecins Sans Frontières
Dreyer, Malu, 149
Dublin regulation, 22, 27, 63, 64, 66, 67, 90, 104, 152, 154, 165, 245, 261, 268, 362, 363, See also EU asylum policy: burden-sharing
failure to reform, 101, 121, 264, 269–272, 320, 372
German suspension of, 3–4, 268, 284
Dubs, Alfred (Lord Dubs), 113
election(s), 101, 109, 173–174, 261, 336–339, 340–341, 354
campaigns, 331–332
Elliniki Lisi (Greek Solution) party
framing of refugee crisis, 204–206
Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip, 97, 114, 161, 256–258, 279, 285–286, 294
weaponization of migration, 94, 103, 256, 292
Estonia, 290
EU agencies. See EU institutions
EU asylum policy. See also Dublin regulation
burden-sharing, 26–27, 245
opposition to, 5, 97, 300
conflict structures in, 305–311
crisis management in, 356
Directive on Asylum Procedures (2015), 66, 67, 69, 70, 290
episodes (refugee crisis)
“non-decisions”, 27, 36, 101
Dublin Reform (2015–19), 46, 90, 95–101, 132–139, 157–159, 168–171, 265
Emergency Relocation Scheme (2015–18), 46, 132–139, 157–159, 168–171, 229, 265, 268
EU hotspot policy (2015–16), 99, 132–139, 157–159, 168–171, 252, 286–295
EU-Libya agreement (2016–20), 46, 95–101, 132–139, 157–159, 168–171, 262–264
European Border and Coast Guard (2015–19), 46, 95–101, 132–139, 157–159, 168–171, 252, 286–295
EU-Turkey agreement (2015–16), 46, 95–101, 132–139, 157–159, 168–171, 252, 275–295
European Asylum Support Office, 291
European Refugee Fund, 67
externalization of, 4, 97–101, 155–156, 163, 229, 294–295
failure to reform, 3–4, 36–38, 119, 356, 363, 371–372
historical development, 64–68
intergovernmental coordination in, 12, 31–32, 152–153, 268, 371
failure of, 3–4
as “organized hypocrisy”, 16, 67–68, 362
Pact on Migration and Asylum, 101
public opinion, 225–227, 303–305
transnational polarization, 305–311
Qualification Directive (2011), 66, 67, 69, 110
radical right opposition to, 23–24, 35, 36, 188, 224
re-bordering, 10, 20–21, 29, 39, 116, 121, 245–246, 357, 366
Reception Conditions Directive (2013), 66, 67, 70
shared competences in, 4, 10, 31, 63, 152–153, 361, 371
Temporary Protection Directive (2001), 376
EU Emergency Support Instrument, 291
EU institutions. See also individual organizations
limited competences of, 35
as policy actor, 4, 10, 104, 121, 123, 138, 142, 155–156, 253, 267, 272–273
policy conflicts among, 156
EU policymaking
communitarization, 65, 67
competence distribution, 11, 25, 31
conflict structures in
supranational (vertical), 21, 28–29
transnational (horizontal), 21, 23–24, 28–29
“constraining dissensus” in, 35, 153
crisis management, 7, 36, 121, 146, 152, 156, 255
and “defensive integration”, 357
and European integration, 9–11, 243
Europeanization in, 30, 244
foreign affairs, 98
French leadership in, 32
German leadership in, 12, 32, 171, 277
intergovernmental coordination in, 33–34, 65, 152–153, 371
long-term impact of refugee crisis on, 374
member states and
“foot dragging”, 30, 244, 254, 273, 370
national identities, 11
policy “uploading”, 29–30, 64, 245, 273, 369
partisan competition and, 34–35
predominance of executive decision-making in, 12, 33–34, 39, 55, 154, 276–282
theories of, 23, 26, 33
transjurisdictional interventions, 29–30, 244–248, 272–273, 369
as two-level game, 16, 21, 25, 33, 154, 243
under crisis conditions, 25–31, 33–34
EU Trust Fund for Africa, 100
EU-Libya agreement, 155–156, 262–264, See also policy episode
Euro (currency), 352
Euro Area crisis. See Eurozone crisis
Eurobarometer, 58, 59
European Agenda on Migration, 90, 169
European Asylum Support Office, 99, 291
European Border and Coast Guard (EBCG)
creation of (2016), 99–102, 245
debates over jurisdiction, 102
jurisdiction debates, 100
European Central Bank (ECB), 31, 156
European Commission, 27, 31, 39, 63, 97, 99–101, 104, 109–110, 125, 138, 143, 144, 156, 157, 253, 261, 263, 290, 362
Directorate-General for Migration and Home Affairs, 66
European Agenda on Migration, 90, 121
New Pact on Migration and Asylum (2020), 372–373
European Council, 13, 21, 33, 99–101, 153, 157, 262, 293
meetings (“EU summits”), 91, 98, 102, 107, 254, 269–271
European Council on Refugees and Exiles, 372
European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), 44, 142, 143
European Court of Justice (ECJ), 44, 97, 109, 266
European integration, 11, 23
defensive, 20–21, 357, 359, 372
EU policymaking and, 9–11, 243
theories of, 6–8, 19, 111–112, 121, 123, 243, 356
European Parliament, 21, 96, 98, 138, 143, 144, 157, 266, 267, 285
2019 elections, 101
European People’s Party (EPP), 266
European radical right. See radical right
European Refugee Fund, 67
European Social Survey (ESS), 58, 304
European Union (EU). See also EU policymaking; EU asylum policy; member states
as compound polity, 8–9, 12, 20, 41, 62, 152, 356–360
enlargement, 72, 99
external borders, 10, 11, 20–21, 29, 65, 90, 95–101, 106, 114, 121, 143, 155, 165, 169, 245–248, 264, 294, 357, 372–374
foreign policymaking, 98
humanitarian and development aid, 294
integration-demarcation cleavage, 11, 23–24, 121–123, 298–302, 365, 366
migration governance, 65
public opinion
EU crises, 302–305
surveys, 58, 59, 302–305
relations with Libya, 100–101
rule-of-law crisis, 375
Europeanization, 30, 244
Europol, 99
Euroscepticism, 23, 207, 218, 219, 304, 320, 341
Eurozone crisis, 70, 289, 303
comparisons with refugee crisis, 18, 38, 353–355, 375
Germany and, 32
Greece and, 29, 102
EU-Turkey agreement, 45, 81, 88, 106, 107, 152, 155–156, 229, 275–295, See also policy episode
Angela Merkel and, 268, 280, 284–285, 288
negotiation and terms of, 97–98
Fahimi, Yasmin, 149
far right. See radical right
Farage, Nigel, 60
Faymann, Werner, 81, 106, 161
Fico, Robert (Slovakian politician), 266
Fico, Roberto (Italian politician), 263
Fidesz party, 80, 109–110, 181, 186, 192–193, 199, 302, 320–330, 324, 328, 341, 346
framing of refugee crisis, 200, 204–206
government of (2014–18), 93, 138, 142, 367
Finland, 5, 97, 302
as bystander state, 309
public opinion
EU asylum policy, 308–311
immigration issues, 311–329
foreign policy, 98, 226
Forza Italia party, 345, 351
framing
discourse (speech) analysis and, 203–210
of refugee crisis, 367
by center-right actors, 187–191, 196, 203–207, 208–219
efficiency-utilitarian frames, 199–219
humanitarian-solidaristic-democratic frames, 187–191, 193, 196, 199–219
international solidarity frames, 193
by left-wing actors, 149, 201
by the radical right, 187–191, 196, 198–199, 203–207, 208–219
securitarian-sovereignty-identitarian frames, 143, 193, 196, 199–219
theories of, 197–198
France, 5, 66, 270, 290, 302
2017 presidential elections, 173–174, 338
asylum applications (statistics), 73–77
asylum regime, 43–44
historical development, 69
as closed destination state, 21–22, 42, 43, 89, 308, 362
EU Presidency (2022), 373
framing of refugee crisis in, 204–219
immigration issue
political salience, 89–90, 336–353
public attitudes, 77–80, 311–329
leadership in EU policymaking, 32
November 2015 terrorist attacks, 94, 109, 144
party system, 338–353
policy conflicts (refugee crisis)
intragovernmental, 132–139
partisan, 112, 132–139, 144–146, 179–183, 185–189
societal, 112, 132–139
supranational (vertical), 132–139, 247
transnational (horizontal), 104, 108–109, 125, 132–139
policy episodes (refugee crisis), 91–93, 126–129, 159
Asylum Law reform (2017–19), 46, 112, 132–139, 179–183, 185–189, 274
Border controls reimposed (2015–20), 46, 94, 108–109, 130, 132–139, 185–189, 234, 274
Calais policy (2015–16), 46, 108–109, 125, 132–139, 179–183, 185–189, 234, 247, 274
Rights of Foreigners Bill (2013–15), 46, 132–139, 144–146, 150, 179–183, 185–189, 234, 274
Ventimiglia border (2015), 46, 108–109, 125, 130, 132–139, 185–189, 225–227, 274
public opinion
EU asylum policy, 308–311
immigration, 77–80, 311–329, 323
radical left in, 180, 345, 352
radical right in, 80–83, 89–90, 180, 343–345, 348–352, 376
Fratelli d’Italia (party), 82, 199, 345, 352, See also Giorgia Meloni
framing of refugee crisis, 204–206
Free Democratic Party (Germany), 329
free movement principle, 6, 83, See also Schengen area
limits to, 10
refugee crisis as threat to, 10
suspension of, 100
Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), 80–81, 347, 350–351
coalition with ÖVP (2017–19), 173–174, 183–186
framing of refugee crisis, 204–206
Front National (FN), 338, 346, 352
Frontex, 90, 99–102, 156, 245, 257, 290, See also European Border and Coast Guard (EBCG)
Galinos, Spyros, 289–291
GALTAN scores, 181, 183, 185–186, 189, 191, 192
Gauland, Alexander, 60
Gentiloni, Paolo, 161
government of (2016–18), 181
Geo Barents (rescue vessel), 373
Germany, 5, 37, 66, 302, 377
2017 elections, 174, 336, 340–341
asylum applications (statistics), 63, 64, 73–77
asylum regime, 43–44
“Aussiedler” refugees, 63
Berlin Christmas market attack (2016), 94, 112
EU presidency(2022), 294
Eurozone crisis, 32
fascist legacies, 82
Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF), 69
Federal Police, 270, 271
framing of refugee crisis in, 204–219
as “hobbled hegemon”, 171
immigration issue
political salience, 89–90, 336–353
public attitudes, 77–80, 311–329
leadership in EU policymaking, 12, 32, 171, 277, 363
New Year’s Eve attacks (2015–16), 111
as open destination state, 22, 42, 43, 89, 275, 308, 362, 363
historical development, 97–98
party system, 107, 338–353
policy conflicts (refugee crisis), 130–131
intragovernmental, 111, 132–139, 147–150, 183–184, 268–272, 282–285
partisan, 130–139, 179–183, 268–272
societal, 132–139, 268–272, 283
supranational (vertical), 132–139, 247
transnational (horizontal), 132–139
policy episodes (refugee crisis), 91–93, 126–129, 159
“Wir Schaffen Das” (2015 Dublin regulation suspension), 46, 106–107, 132–139, 150, 179, 183–184, 247, 282–285
Asylum Package (2015–16), 46, 132–139, 179, 183–184, 187–189, 282–285
CDU-CSU policy dispute (2018), 46, 107, 179, 183, 187–189, 247, 370
EU-Turkey agreement (2015–16), 282–285
Integration Law (2016), 46, 111, 132–139, 179, 282–285
Orderly Returns Law (2017–19), 94, 111, 132–139, 234
public opinion
EU asylum policy, 308–311
immigration, 77–80, 311–329, 323
radical right in, 80–83, 89–90, 148, 340–341, 343, 345, 348–350, 376
Willkommenskultur (welcome culture), 97, 106, 184
Golden Dawn party, 82, 180, 343, 344, 351
Greece, 5, 37, 270, 302
2019 elections, 173, 338
asylum applications (statistics), 70–71
asylum regime
dysfunction in, 43–44, 71, 289–291
historical development, 70–71
diaspora, 70
and Eurozone crisis, 29, 102
as frontline state, 42, 43, 89, 275, 308, 362–363
framing of refugee crisis in, 204–219
immigration issue
political salience, 89–90, 336–353
public attitudes, 311–329
migrant “pushbacks”, 293
as object of EU policymaking, 245
party system, 339, 342
policy conflicts (refugee crisis), 130–131
externalized, 374
intragovernmental, 132–139
partisan, 132–139, 179–183
societal, 132–139
supranational (vertical), 132–139, 155, 251–258, 286–295
transnational (horizontal), 94, 132–139, 155, 251–258
policy episodes (refugee crisis), 91–93, 159
Aegean detention centers (2019–20), 46, 94, 115, 132–139, 251–256, 274
EU hotspot policy (2015–16), 286–295
European Border and Coast Guard (2015–19), 286–295
EU-Turkey agreement (2015–16), 277–282, 286–295
Hotspots/Frontex (2015–16), 46, 102, 115, 132–139, 251–256, 274, 370
International Protection Bill (2019), 46, 94, 115, 132–139, 256–258, 274
Summer 2015 “foot dragging”, 46, 102, 115, 130, 132–139, 179–183, 251–256, 274, 370
Turkey border crisis (2020), 46, 94, 103, 115, 132–139, 256–258, 370
public opinion
EU asylum policy, 308–311
immigration, 77–80, 311–329, 323
radical left in, 286–295, 302, 341, 349
radical right in, 80–83, 89–90, 180, 343, 348–350, 376
relations with Turkey, 94, 102, 245–248, 256–258
threats to expel from Schengen, 155, 165, 254–256
Green Party (Sweden), 108
coalition with Social Democrats (2019–21), 112, 181, 182
Greens party (Austria), 81
Gulyás, Gergely, 143
Gyurcsány, Ferenc, 192
Häupl, Michael, 184
Hofer, Norbert, 261
Hollande, François, 161, 173, 261
government of, 144–146
Holz, Thomas, 148
Hotspots (migrant camps), 292
Idomeni, 289–291
international criticism of, 155–156
on Aegean islands, 256–258, 289–292, 295
Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP), 192
Hungary, 5, 165, 263, 302, 330
2018 elections, 109, 342
Asylum Act (2007), 72
asylum applications (statistics), 73
asylum regime, 43–44
historical development, 71–72
Budapest Keleti station closure (2015), 3
framing of refugee crisis in, 204–219
as illiberal democracy, 375
immigration issue
political salience, 89–90, 336–353
public attitudes, 77–80, 311–329
party system, 109, 339, 338–353
policy conflicts (refugee crisis)
actors, 105–106, 109–110
intragovernmental, 132–139
partisan, 93, 109–110, 132–139, 179–183, 191–193
societal, 109–110, 132–139, 192–193, 264–267
supranational (vertical), 109–110, 130–139, 142–144, 247, 264–267
transnational (horizontal), 105, 132–139, 264–267
policy episodes (refugee crisis), 91–93, 126–129, 159
“Stop Soros” package (2018–19), 46, 93, 109–110, 130, 132–139, 179–183, 185–189, 234, 264–267, 370
border barrier amendment (2017–18), 46, 105–106, 132–139, 142–144, 234, 264–267, 370
border fence policy (2015–16), 46, 105–106, 131–139, 229, 264–267, 370
civil society law (2017), 46, 93, 109–110, 129, 132–139, 264–267, 370
EU-Turkey agreement (2015–16), 277–282
Quota referendum (2015–16), 46, 52, 109–110, 125, 132–139, 179–183, 185–189, 191–193, 264–267, 370
public opinion
EU asylum policy, 308–311
immigration, 77–80, 311–329
radical right in, 80–83, 89–90, 109–110, 180, 192–193, 345–346, 348–350, 376
rule-of-law crisis in, 37, 375
shrinking press freedom in, 342, 351
transition to democracy, 72
as transit state, 22, 42, 43, 73, 89, 275, 308, 309, 362–363
identity
European
as discursive frame, 143, 198–199, 218–219
national
as discursive frame, 177, 187–191, 193, 196, 199–219
politicization of, 23–24, 36, 121
immigration issue(s)
partisan competition over, 336–353
political salience of, 77–80, 235–237, 332–355, 363
public attitudes, 41, 177, 195–196, 227, 302–305, 311–329, 323, 225–227
radical right “ownership” of, 38, 122, 198, 355
radical right politicization of, 122, 176–177
partisan competition over, 23–25
integration-demarcation cleavage (EU), 5, 11, 20, 23–24, 121–123, 298–302, 365, 366
intergovernmental coordination
in EU asylum policy
failure of, 12
in EU policymaking, 33–34
as predominant decision-making mode during refugee crisis, 13, 153
international humanitarian law, 196, 291, 292, 371, 372
Ireland, 5, 302
as bystander state, 22, 309
asylum applications (statistics), 68
public opinion
EU asylum policy, 308–311
immigration issues, 311–329, 323
Islamophobia, 201, 202, 205, 207, 213, 216
issue(s)
“ownership”, 38, 122, 198, 332, 334, 344, 355
direction, 223
domains, 224, 226
partisan positioning on, 177, 332, 335, 339, 343–349
Italy, 5, 66
2013 elections, 337
2018 elections, 173, 337
asylum applications (statistics), 73–77
asylum regime, 43–44
historical development, 71–72
Bossi-Fini Law (2002), 71
coast guard, 259, 263
framing of refugee crisis in, 204–219
as frontline state, 42, 43, 89, 308, 362–363
immigration issue
political salience, 89–90, 336–353
public attitudes, 77–80, 311–329
party system, 339, 342
policy conflicts (refugee crisis), 130–131
intragovernmental, 189–192
partisan, 132–139, 179–183, 258–264
societal, 132–139, 258–264
supranational (vertical), 132–139, 247, 258–264
transnational (horizontal), 104, 125, 132–139, 258–264
policy episodes (refugee crisis), 91–93, 126–129, 159
Brenner Pass (2016), 46, 104, 125, 132–139, 274
EU-Libya agreement (2016–20), 370
Mare Nostrum (2013–14), 46, 103, 132–139, 247, 274, 370
Port Closures (2018), 46, 94, 104, 132–139, 274, 370
Sicurezza decrees (2018–19), 46, 94, 104, 132–139, 179, 184–191, 274
Ventimiglia border (2015), 46, 104, 125, 132–139, 225–264, 274, 370
public opinion
EU asylum policy, 308–311
immigration, 77–80, 311–329, 323
radical right in, 80–83, 89–90, 189–191, 197–198, 343–345, 348–352, 376
relations with Libya, 71, 100–101, 155, 262–264
Turco–Napolitano Law (1998), 71
Jobbik party, 80, 109–110, 138, 164, 180, 192–193, 342, 346
Jordan, 295
Juncker, Jean-Claude, 96, 100, 161–162, 255, 261, 267, 270, 271, 279
Kammenos, Panos, 253
Kern, Christian, 161
Kindertransport (Second World War), 114
Kotzias, Nikos, 255
Kövér, László, 266
Kramp-Karrenbauer, Annegret, 149
Kurdi, Alan
death of, 195–196
Kurz, Sebastian, 60, 81, 104, 106, 154, 161, 216, 258, 261, 272, 347, 352
government of (2017–19), 173, 183–186
La France Insoumise party, 352
La République En Marche, 182, 341
Latvia, 5, 290, 302
as bystander state, 308, 313, 316
public opinion
EU asylum policy, 308–311
immigration issues, 311–329, 323
Law and Justice party (PiS), 199, 302, 320–330
government of, 35
Lázár, János, 143
Lebanon, 295
Left Party (Sweden), 112, 138
Lega party, 94, 301, 345, 352
coalition with M5S (2018–21), 104, 173, 182, 183, 189–191, 262–264, 270, 367
framing of refugee crisis, 204–206
Les Républicains party, 144–146, 150
Letta, Enrico
government of (2013–14), 103, 259
Liberal Democrats (UK), 174
coalition with Conservatives (2010–15), 139
governing coalition with Conservatives (2010–15), 70
Libya
coast guard, 262
relations with Italy, 71, 100–101, 155, 262–264
relations with the EU, 100–101
Lifeline (rescue vessel), 263
Lisbon Treaty, 66
Lithuania, 290
LMP–Hungary’s Green Party, 192
Löfven, Stefan, 108, 161, 174
government of (2014–21), 185
Lukashenko, Alexander
weaponization of migration,