Early Palaeolithic Europe

Olaf Jöris

doi:10.1017/CHO9781139017831.103

3.17 - Early Palaeolithic Europe

from VIII. - Europe and the Mediterranean

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 August 2014

Olaf Jöris

Edited by

Colin Renfrew and

Paul Bahn

Show author details

Olaf Jöris: Affiliation:
Forschungbereich Altsteinzeit des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, Schloss Monrepos, Neuwied
Colin Renfrew: Affiliation:
University of Cambridge

Book contents

Get access

Summary

Life in Early Palaeolithic Europe was significantly different from that in the Upper Palaeolithic after the first Anatomically Modern Humans had entered the continent. For almost two million years the continent had been occupied by hominins different from us. These ancestral populations adapted to, and learned to cope with, entirely different climatic and environmental conditions within Europe’s constantly changing geography. The hominins established culture and a way of life, both of which changed through time, increasing their own influence on the environment. They were highly knowledgeable and became skilled and experienced hunters, well equipped for life in Ice Age Europe (Fig. 3.17.1). However, they also remained entirely different from Modern Humans.

Initial African Exodus

Early hominin presence in Europe can be traced back for almost 2 million years, with the Dmanisi hominin fossils found in the Georgian Transcaucasus, well dated to c. 1.77 million years, at the base of an archaic Eurasian branch. Although the four hominin skulls and the four mandibles found at the site in close association with simple Oldowan (“mode 1”) lithic artifacts display great morphological heterogeneity (Rightmire et al. 2006; Lordkipanidze et al. 2007), the entire fossil assemblage may belong to a single, highly sexually dimorphic species that “preserves several affinities with Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis”, known from African sites in the interval >2.0–1.6 million years, “foretelling the emergence of Homo ergaster” (Tattersall 2007: 1648; cf. Gabounia et al. 2002: 245; Fig. 3.17.1) as well as that of Homo erectus in Eastern Asia (Vekua et al. 2002).

Type: Chapter
Information: The Cambridge World Prehistory , pp. 1703 - 1746

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHO9781139017831.103 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adam, K. D. 1951. Der Waldelefant von Lehringen, eine Jagdbeute des diluvialen Menschen. Quartär 5: 79–92.Google Scholar

Adams, J., Maslin, M. & Thomas, E. 1999. Sudden climate transitions during the Quaternary. Progress in Physical Geography 23 (1): 1–36.Google Scholar

Adler, D. S., Bar-Oz, G., Belfer-Cohen, A. & Bar-Yosef, O. 2006. Middle and Upper Palaeolithic hunting behaviors in the southern Caucasus: implications. Current Anthropology 47 (1): 89–118.Google Scholar

Adler, D. S., Prindiville, T. J. & Conard, N. J. 2003. Patterns of spatial organization and land use during the Eemian Interglacial in the Rhineland: new data from Wallertheim, Germany. Eurasian Prehistory 1: 25–78.Google Scholar

Affolter, J. 2002. Provenance des silex préhistoriques du Jura et des régions limitrophes. Tome 2. Archéologie neuchâteloise 28: Neuchâtel.

Aiello, L. C. 1998. The ‘Expensive Tissue Hypothesis’ and the evolution of the human adaptive niche: a study in comparative anatomy, pp. 25–36 in (Bayley, J., ed.) Science in Archaeology. An Agenda for the Future. English Heritage: London.

Aiello, L. C. & Wheeler, P. 1995. The Expensive Tissue Hypothesis: the brain and the digestive system in human and primate evolution. Current Anthropology 36: 199–221.Google Scholar

Aiello, L. C. & Wheeler, P. 2003. Neanderthal thermoregulation and the glacial climate, pp. 147–66 in (Van Andel, T. & Davies, W., eds.) Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape during the Last Glaciation. McDonald Institute Monographs: Cambridge.

Alekseev, M. N. 1996. Possible ‘Cromerian Complex’ equivalent sequences in the Russian Plain, pp. 273–7 in (Turner, C., ed.) The Early Middle Pleistocene in Europe. Balkema: Rotterdam.

Alperson-Afil, N. & Goren-Inbar, N. 2010. The Acheulian Site of Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, vol. II. Ancient Flames and Controlled Use of Fire. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Springer: Amsterdam.

Álvarez Fernández, E. & Jöris, O. 2008. Personal ornaments in the Early Upper Paleolithic of Western Eurasia: an evaluation of the record. Eurasian Prehistory 5 (2): 31–44.Google Scholar

Ambrose, S. H. 2001. Paleolithic technology and human evolution. Nature 291: 1748–53.Google Scholar

Andersen, K. K., Azuma, N., Barnola, J. M., Bigler, M., Biscaye, P., Caillon, N., Chappellaz, J., Clausen, H. B., et al. 2004. High-resolution record of Northern Hemisphere climate extending into the last interglacial period. Nature 431: 147–51.Google Scholar

Andree, J. 1939. Der eiszeitliche Mensch in Deutschland und seine Kulturen. F. Enke: Stuttgart.

Antoine, P., Auguste, P., Bahain, J.-J., Chaussé, C., Falguères, C., Ghaleb, B., Limondin-Lozouet, N., Locht, J.-L. & Voinchet, P. 2010. Chronostratigraphy and palaeoenvironments of Acheulean occupations in northern France (Somme, Seine and Yonne valleys). Quaternary International 223–4: 456–61.Google Scholar

Antoine, P., Auguste, P., Bahain, J.-J., Coudret, P., Depaepe, P., et al. 2003. Paléoenvironnements pléistocènes et peuplement paléolithique dans le basin de la Somme (nord de la France). Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 100: 5–28.Google Scholar

Antón, S. C., Spoor, F., Fellmann, C. & Swisher, C. C. III. 2007. Defining Homo erectus: size considered, pp. 1654–93 in (Henke, W., Hardt, T. & Tattersall, I., eds.) Handbook of Paleoanthropology, vol. 3 (1). Springer: Berlin.

Arribas, A. & Palmqvist, P. 1999. On the ecological connection between sabre-tooths and hominids: faunal dispersal events in the Lower Pleistocene and a review of the evidence for the first human arrival in Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science 26: 571–85.Google Scholar

Arsuaga, J. L., Martínez, I., Garcia, A., Carretero, J. M. & Carbonell, E. 1993. Three new human skulls from the Sima de los Huesos Middle Pleistocene site in Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain. Nature 362: 534–7.Google Scholar

Arsuaga, J. L., Martínez, I., Garcia, A. & Lorenzo, C. 1997. The Sima de los Huesos crania (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain): a comparative study. Journal of Human Evolution 33: 219–81.Google Scholar

Arzarello, M., Marcolini, F., Pavia, G., Pavia, M., Petronio, C., Petrucci, M., Rook, L. & Sardella, R. 2006. Evidence of earliest human occurrence in Europe: the site of Pirro Nord (southern Italy). Naturwissenschaften 94 (2): 107–12.Google Scholar

Arzarello, M. & Peretto, C. 2010. Out of Africa: the first evidence of Italian peninsula occupation. Quaternary International 223–4: 65–70.Google Scholar

Ascenzi, A., Biddittu, I., Cassali, P. F., Serge, A. G. & Serge Naldini, E. 1996. A calvarium of late Homo erectus from Ceprano, Italy. Journal of Human Evolution 31: 409–23.Google Scholar

Asfaw, B., Beyenne, Y., Suwa, G., Walter, R. C., White, T. D., WoldeGabriel, G. & Yemane, T. 1992. The earliest Acheulean from Konso-Gardula. Nature 360: 732–5.Google Scholar

Ashton, N. 2002. Absence of humans in Britain during the Last Interglacial (Oxygen Isotope Stage 5e), pp. 93–103 in (Tuffreau, A. & W. Roebroeks, eds.) Le dernier Interglaciaire et les occupations humaines du Paléolithique moyen. Publications du CERP 8: Lille.

Ashton, N. 2004. The role of refitting in the British Lower Palaeolithic: a time for reflection, pp. 57–64 in (Walker, E. A., Wenban-Smith, F. & Healy, F., eds.) Lithics in Action. Lithic Studies Society Occasional Paper 8. Oxbow: Oxford.

Auguste, P. 1988. Etude des restes osseux des grand mammifères de niveaux D, D1, II Base, pp. 133–69 in (Tuffreau, A. & Sommé, J., eds.) Le gisement Paléolithique moyen de Biache-Saint-Vaast (Pas de Calais). Mémoires de la Société Préhistorique Française 21: Paris.

Auguste, P. 2002. Fiche éclats diaphysaires du Paléolithique moyen: Biache-saint-Vaast (Pas-de-Calais) et Kulna (Moravie, République Tchèque), pp. 39–57 in (Patou-Mathis, M., ed.) Compresseurs, percuteurs, retouchoirs ... Os à impressions et éraillures, Industrie de l’os préhistorique, cahier X. Editions de la Société Préhistorique Française: Paris.

Baales, M., Jöris, O., Justus, A. & Roebroeks, W. 2000. Natur oder Kultur? Zur Frage ältestpaläolithischer Artefaktensembles aus Hauptterrassenschottern in Deutschland. Germania 78: 1–20.Google Scholar

Barkai, R., Gopher, A., Lauritzen, S. E. & Frumkin, A. 2003. Uranium Series dates from Qesem Cave, Israel, and the end of the Lower Palaeolithic. Nature 423: 977–9.Google Scholar

Barron, E., Van Andel, T. & Pollard, D. 2003. Glacial environments II: reconstructing the climate of Europe in the Last Glaciation, pp. 57–78 in (Van Andel, T. & Davies, W., eds.) Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape during the Last Glaciation. McDonald Institute Monographs: Cambridge.

Barsky, D., Celiberti, V., Cauche, D., Grégoire, S., Lebègue, F., de Lumley, H. & Toro-Moyano, I. 2010. Raw material discernment and technological aspects of the Barranco-León and Fuente Nueva 3 stone assemblages (Orce southern Spain). Quaternary International 223–4: 201–19.Google Scholar

Barsky, D. & de Lumley, H. 2010. Early European Mode 2 and the stone industry from the Caune de l’Arago’s archeostratigraphical levels “P”. Quaternary International 223–4: 71–86.Google Scholar

Barton, N. 2000. Mousterian hearths and shellfish: late Neanderthal activities on Gibraltar, pp. 211–20 in (Stringer, C. B., Barton, R. N. E. & Finlayson, J. C., eds.) Neanderthals on the Edge: Papers from a Conference Marking the 150th anniversary of the Forbes’ Quarry Discovery, Gibraltar. Oxbow: Oxford.

Bar-Yosef, O. 1998. On the nature of transitions: the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic and the Neolithic Revolution. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 8: 141–63.Google Scholar

Bar-Yosef, O. & Goren-Inbar, N. 1993. The Lithic Assemblages of ‘Ubeidiya: A Lower Palaeolithic Site in the Jordan Valley. Qedem 34: Jerusalem.

Bar-Yosef, O., Vandermeersch, B., Arenburg, B., Belfer-Cohen, A., Goldberg, P., Laville, H., Meignen, L., Rak, Y., Speth, J. D., Tchernov, E., Tillier, A.-M. & Weiner, S. 1992. The excavations in Kebara Cave, Mt Carmel. Current Anthropology 33 (5): 497–550.Google Scholar

Baumann, W. & Mania, D. 1983. Die paläolithischen Neufunde von Markkleeberg bei Leipzig. Veröffentlichungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Dresden 16: Berlin.

Beck, M., Gaupp, R., Kamradt, I., Liebermann, C. & Pasda, C. 2007. Bilzingsleben. Site formation processes – Geoarchaeological investigations of a Middle Pleistocene deposit: preliminary results of the 2003–2005 excavations. Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 37: 1–18.Google Scholar

Berger, T. D. & Trinkaus, E. 1995. Patterns of trauma among the Neandertals. Journal of Archaeological Science 22: 841–52.Google Scholar

Bermúdez de Castro, J. M., Arsuaga, J. L., Carbonell, E., Rosas, A., Martínez, I. & Mosqueria, M. 1997. A hominid from the Lower Pleistocene of Atapuerca, Spain: possible ancestor to Neanderthals and modern humans. Science 276: 1392–5.Google Scholar

Binford, L. R. 2001. Constructing Frames of Reference. An Analytical Method for Archaeological Theory Building Using Hunter-Gatherer and Environmental Data Sets. University of California Press: Berkeley.

Bischoff, J. L., Williams, R. W., Rosenbauer, R. J., Aramburu, A., Arsuaga, J. L., Garcia, N. & Cuenca-Bescon, G. 2007. High-resolution U-series dates from the Sima de los Huesos hominids yields 600+∞/–66 kyrs: implications for the evolution of the early Neanderthal lineage. Journal of Archaeological Science 34: 763–70.Google Scholar

Björck, S., Noe-Nygaard, N., Wolin, J., Houmark-Nielsen, M., Hansen, H. J. & Snowball, I. 2000. Eemian lake development, hydrology and climate: a multistratigraphic study of the Hollerup site in Denmark. Quaternary Science Reviews 19: 509–36.Google Scholar

Bocherens, H. 2009. Neanderthal dietary habits: review of the isotopic evidence, pp. 241–50 in (Hublin, J.-J. & Richards, M. P., eds.) The Evolution of Hominin Diets. Integrating Approaches to the Study of Palaeolithic Subsistence. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series. Springer: New York.

Bocherens, H., Billiou, D., Mariotti, A., Patou-Mathis, M., Otte, M., Bonjean, D. & Toussaint, M. 1999. Palaeoenvironmental and palaeodietary implications of isotopic biogeochemistry of Last Interglacial Neanderthal and mammal bones in Scladina Cave (Belgium). Journal of Archaeological Science 26: 599–607.Google Scholar

Bocherens, H., Billiou, D., Mariotti, A., Toussaint, M., Patou-Mathis, M., Bonjean, D. & Otte, M. 2001. New isotopic evidence for dietary habits of Neandertals from Belgium. Journal of Human Evolution 40: 497–505.Google Scholar

Bocherens, H. & Drucker, D. 2003. Reconstructing Neandertal diet from 120,000 to 30,000 bp using carbon and nitrogen isotopic abundances, pp. 1–7 in (Pathou-Mathis, M. & Bocherens, H., eds.) Le rôle de l’environnement dans les comportements des chasseurs-cueilleurs préhistoriques. BAR International Series 1105: Oxford.

Boëda, E., Geneste, J. M. & Griggo, C. (together with Mercier, N., Muhesen, S., Reyss, J. L., Taha, A. & Valladas, H.) 1999. A Levallois point embedded in the vertebra of a wild ass (Equus africanus): hafting, projectiles and Mousterian hunting weapons. Antiquity 73: 394–402.Google Scholar

Bonifay, E. 1964. La Grotte du Régourdou (Montignac, Dordogne): stratigraphie et industrie lithique Moustérienne. L’Anthropologie 68: 49–64.Google Scholar

Bordes, F. 1950. L’évolution buissonante des industries en Europe Occidentale. Considération théorique sur le Paléolithique ancien et moyen. L’Anthropologie 54: 393–420.Google Scholar

Bordes, F. 1961a. Typologie du Paléolithique ancien et moyen. Publications de l’Institut de Préhistoire de l’Université de Bordeaux, Mémoire No. 1: Bordeaux.

Bordes, F. 1961b. Mousterian cultures in France. Science 134: 803–10.Google Scholar

Boschian, G. & Saccà, D. 2010. Ambiguities in human and elephant interactions? Stories of bones, sand and water from Castel di Guido (Italy). Quaternary International 24: 3–16.Google Scholar

Bosinski, G. 1967. Die mittelpaläolithischen Funde im westlichen Mitteleuropa. Fundamenta A4: Cologne and Graz.

Bosinski, G. 1985. Der Neandertaler und seine Zeit. Kunst und Altertum am Rhein. Führer des Rheinischen Landesmuseums Bonn, Nr. 118: Cologne.

Bosinski, G. 1995. Hochdahl, pp. 976–7 in (Bosinski, G., ed.) The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of the Rhineland, in (Schirmer, W., ed.) Quaternary Field Trips in Central Europe, vol. 2. Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil: Munich.

Bosinski, G. 1996. Les origines de l’homme en Europe et en Asie. Atlas des sites du Paléolithique inférieur. Editions Errance: Paris.

Bosinski, G. 2008. Urgeschichte am Rhein. Tübingen Publications in Prehistory/Tübinger Monographien zur Urgeschichte. Kerns: Tübingen.

Bosinski, G., Scelinskij, V. E., Kulakov, S. A. & Kindler, L. 2003. Bogatyri (Sinaja Balka) – Ein altpaläolithischer Fundplatz auf der Taman-Halbinsel (Rußland), pp. 79–89 in (Burdukiewicz, J. M., Fiedler, L., Heinrich, W.-D., Justus, A. & Brühl, E., eds.) Erkenntnisjäger – Kultur und Umwelt des frühen Menschen. Festschrift für Dietrich Mania. Veröffentlichungen des Landesamtes für Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt – Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte 57/I: Halle.

Boyle, K. V. 2000. Reconstructing Middle Palaeolithic Subsistence strategies in the South of France. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 10: 336–56.Google Scholar

Bradshaw, R. H. W., Hannon, G. E. & Lister, A. M. 2003. A long-term perspective on ungulate-vegetation interactions. Forest Ecology Management 181: 267–80.Google Scholar

Brantingham, P. F. 1998. Hominid-carnivore coevolution and invasion of the predatory guild. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 17: 327–53.Google Scholar

Bratlund, B. 2000. Taubach revisited. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 46: 61–174.Google Scholar

Burdukiewicz, I. M. 2003. The archaeology of the warm period between the Drenthe and Warthe Glacials in Poland, pp. 103–22 in (Burdukiewicz, J., Fiedler, L., Heinrich, W.-D., Justus, A. & Brühl, E., eds.) ErkenntnisJäger. Kultur und Umwelt des frühen Menschen (Festschrift Dietrich Mania). Veröffentlichungen des Landesamtes für Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt 57: Halle.

Burdukiewicz, I. M. & Ronen, A. (eds.) 2003. Lower Paleolithic Small Tools in Europe and the Levant. BAR International Series 1115. Archaeopress: Oxford.

Cahen, D. & Michel, J. 1986. Le site paléolithique moyen ancien de Mesvin IV (Hainaut, Belgique). Bulletin de l’Association Française pour l’Etude du Quaternaire, suppl. 26: 89–102.Google Scholar

Carbonell, E., Bermúdez de Castro, J. M., Arsuaga, J. L., Allues, E., Bastir, M., Benito, A., Cáceres, I., Canals, T., Díez, J. C., van der Made, J., Mosquera, M., Ollé, A., Pérez-González, A., Rodríguez, J., Rodríguez, X. P., Rosas, A., Rosell, J., Sala, R., Vallverdú, J. & Vergés, J. M. 2005. An Early Pleistocene hominin mandible from Atapuerca-TD6 Spain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 102: 5674–8.Google Scholar

Carbonell, E., Bermúdez de Castro, J. M., Arsuaga, J. L., Díez, J. C., Rosas, A., Cuenca-Bescós, G., Sala, R., Mosquera, M. & Rodríguez, X. P. 1995. Lower Pleistocene hominids and artifacts from Atapuerca-TD6 (Spain). Science 269: 826–30.Google Scholar

Carbonell, E., Bermúdez de Castro, J. M., Parés, J. M., Pérez-González, A., Cuenca-Bescós, G., Ollé, A., Mosquera, M., Huguet, R., van der Made, J., Rosas, A., Sala, R., Vallverdú, J., García, N., Granger, D. E., Martinón-Torres, M., Rodríguez, X. P., Stock, G. M., Vergès, J. M., Allué, E., Burjachs, F., Cáceres, I., Canals, A., Benito, A., Díez, C., Lozano, M., Mateos, A., Navazo, M., Rodríguez, J., Rosell, J. & Arsuaga, L. 2008. The first hominin of Europe. Nature 452: 465–70.Google Scholar

Carbonell, E., Cáceres, I., Lozano, M., Sladié, P., Rosell, J., Lorenzo, C., Vallverdú, J., Huguet, R., Canals, A. & Bermúdez de Castro, J. M. 2010. Cultural cannibalism as a paleoeconomic system in the European Lower Pleistocene. Current Anthropology 51 (4): 539–49.Google Scholar

Carbonell, E., García-Antón, M. D., Mallol, C., Mosquera, M., Ollé, A., Rodríguez, X. P., Sahnouni, M., Sala, R. & Vergès, J. M. 1999. The TD6 level lithic industry from Gran Dolina, Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain): production and use. Journal of Human Evolution 37 (3–4): 653–93.Google Scholar

Cattani, L. 1992. Il ricoprimento vegetale nell’area Padana durante il Pleistoceneo inferiore e medio, pp. 291–302 in (Peretto, C., ed.) O primi abitanti della Valle Padana: Monte Poggiolo ne Quadro delle Conoscenze Europee. Jaca: Milan.

Černyš, A. P. 1982. Mnogosloïnaja paleolitičeskaja stojanka Molodova I., pp. 6–102 in (Goretsky, G. I. & Ivanova, I. K., eds.) Molodova I. Unikal’noje must’erskoje poseljenije na Crednem Dnestre. Nauka: Moscow.

Chase, P. G. 1986. The Hunters of Combe-Grenal: Approaches to Middle Paleolithic Subsistence in Europe. BAR International Series 286: Oxford.

Churchill, S. E. 1998. Cold adaptation, heterochrony and Neandertals. Evolutionary Anthropology 7: 46–61.Google Scholar

Churchill, S. E. & Rhodes, J. A. 2009. The evolution of the human capacity for “killing at a distance”: the human fossil evidence for the evolution of projectile weaponry, pp. 201–10 in (Hublin, J.-J. & Richards, M. P., eds.) The Evolution of Hominin Diets: Integrating Approaches to the Study of Palaeolithic Subsistence. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series. Springer: New York.

Clark, J. G. D. 1971. World Prehistory: A New Outline. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

Cleyet-Merle, J.-J. 1990. La Préhistoire de la Pêche. Editions Errance: Paris.

Coltoreti, M., Feraud, G., Marzoli, A., Peretto, C., Ton-That, T., Voinchet, P., Bahain, J. J., Minelli, A. & Hohenstein, U. T. 2005. New 40Ar/39Ar, stratigraphic and palaeoclimatic data of the Isernia La Pineta Lower Palaeolithic site, Molise, Italy. Quaternary International 131: 11–22.Google Scholar

Conard, N. J. 2003. Handaxes on the landscape and the reconstruction of Paleolithic settlement patterns, pp. 123–44 in (Burdukiewicz, J., Fiedler, L., Heinrich, W.-D., Justus, A. & Brühl, E., eds.) Erkenntnis Jäger. Kultur und Umwelt des frühen Menschen. (Festschrift Dietrich Mania). Veröffentlichungen des Landesamtes für Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt 57: Halle.

Conard, N. J. & Bolus, M. 2003. Radiocarbon dating the appearance of modern humans and timing of cultural innovations in Europe: new results and new challenges. Journal of Human Evolution 44: 331–71.Google Scholar

Conard, N. J. & Fischer, B. 2000. Are there recognizable Cultural Entities in the German Middle Paleolithic?, pp. 7–24 in (Ronen, A. & Weinstein, M., eds.) Yabrudian and Micoquian. Towards Modern Humans 400–50 kya Ago. BAR International Series 850: Oxford.

Conard, N. J., Preuß, J., Langohr, R., Haesaerts, P., van Kolfschoten, T., Beczedeák, J. & Rebholz, A. 1995. New geological research at the Middle Palaeolithic locality of Wallertheim in Rheinhessen. Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 25: 1–12.Google Scholar

Conard, N. J. & Prindiville, T. J. 2000. Middle Palaeolithic hunting economies in the Rhineland. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 10: 286–309.Google Scholar

Cornu, S., Pätzold, J., Bard, E., Meco, J. & Cuerda-Barcelo, J. 1993. Paleotemperature of the last interglacial period based on δ18O of Strombus bubonius from the Western Mediterranean Sea. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 103: 1–20.Google Scholar

Czarnetzki, A., Frangenberg, K.-W. & Pusch, C. M. 2007. Zwei neue Schädelfragmente der frühesten Vertreter der Gattung Homo aus Sarstedt, Ldkr. Hildesheim, pp. 229–34 in (Thieme, H., ed.) Die Schöninger Speere. Mensch und Jagd vor 400000 Jahren. Theiss: Stuttgart.

Darlas, A. 1995. The earliest occupation of Europe: the Balkans, pp. 51–9 in (Roebroeks, W. & van Kolfschoten, T., eds.) The Earliest Occupation of Europe. Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 27: Leiden.

Davies, W. & Gollop, P. 2003. The human presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period II: Climate tolerance and climate preferences of Mid- and Late Glacial hominids, pp. 131–46 in (Van Andel, T. & Davies, W., eds.) Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape during the Last Glaciation. McDonald Institute Monographs: Cambridge.

Dean, D., Hublin, J.-J., Holloway, R. & Ziegler, R. 1998. On the phylogenetic position of the pre-Neandertal specimen from Reilingen, Germany. Journal of Human Evolution 34: 485–508.Google Scholar

Defleur, A. 1993. Les Sépultures Moustériennes. CNRS: Paris.

Defleur, A., White, T., Valensi, P., Slimak, L. & Crégut-Bonnoure, E. 1999. Neanderthal cannibalism at Moula-Guercy, Ardèche, France. Science 286: 128–31.Google Scholar

Dennell, R. W. 1998. Grassland, tool-making and the hominid colonization of Southern Asia, pp. 280–303 in (Petraglia, M. D. & Korisettar, R., eds.) Early Human Behaviour in Global Context. The Rise and Diversity of the Lower Palaeolithic Record. One World Archaeology 28. Routledge: London.

Depaepe, P. 2002. Organisations spatiales et fonctions des sites au Paléolithique moyen dans la vallée de la Vanne (France). Notae Praehistoricae 22: 7–14.Google Scholar

Derevianko, A. P. 2006. The Lower Paleolithic small tool industry in Eurasia: migration or convergent evolution? Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 1 (25): 2–32.Google Scholar

Derevianko, A. P. & Zening, V. N. 2007. Preliminary results of archaeological studies at the Lower Paleolithic site of Darvagchai-1 in Dagestan. Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 4 (32): 29–51.Google Scholar

Derricourt, R. 2005. Getting “Out of Africa”: sea crossings, land crossings and culture in the hominin migrations. Journal of World Prehistory 19 (2): 119–32.Google Scholar

Despriée, J., Gageonnet, R., Voinchet, P., Bahain, J.-J., Falguères, C., Varache, F., Courcimault, G. & Dolo, J.-M. 2006. Une occupation humaine au Pléistocène inférieur sur la bordure nord du Massif Central. Comptes Rendus Palevol 5: 821–8.Google Scholar

Despriée, J., Voinchet, P., Tissoux, H., Moncel, M.-H., Arzarello, M., Robin, S., Bahain, J.-J., Falguères, C., Courcimault, G., Dépont, J., Gageonnet, R., Marquer, L., Messager, E., Abdessadok, S. & Puaud, S. 2010. Lower and Middle Pleistocene human settlements in the Middle Loire River Basin, Centre Region, France. Quaternary International 223–4: 345–59.Google Scholar

Dibble, H. L. 1995. Middle Palaeolithic scraper reduction: background, clarification, and review of the evidence to date. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 2: 299–368.Google Scholar

Dibble, H. L. & Bar-Yosef, O. (eds.) 1995. The Definition and Interpretation of Levallois Technology. Monographs in World Archaeology 23. Prehistory Press: Madison, WI.

Dibble, H. L. & Rolland, N. 1992. On assemblage variability in the Middle Palaeolithic of Western Europe: history, perspectives, and a new synthesis, pp. 1–29 in (Dibble, H. L. & Mellars, P., eds.) The Middle Palaeolithic: Adaptation, Behaviour, and Variability. University of Pennsylvania Museum Monograph 72: Philadelphia.

Dolukhanov, P. M., Chepalyga, A. L., Shkatova, V. K. & Lavrentiev, N. V. 2009. Late Quaternary Caspian: sea-levels, environments and human settlement. Open Geography Journal 2: 1–15.Google Scholar

Dolukhanov, P. M., Kozłowski, J. K. & Kozłowski, S. K. 1980. Multivariate Analysis of Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic Stone Assemblages. Prace I Mat. Muz. Lódz Ser. Arch. 30: Warsaw and Krakow.

Domínguez-Rodrigo, M., de la Torre, I., de Luque, L., Alcalá, L., Mora, R., Serrallonga, J. & Medina, V. 2002. The ST Site complex at Peninj, West Lake Natron, Tanzania: implications for early hominid behavioural models. Journal of Archaeological Science 29: 639–65.Google Scholar

Domínguez-Rodrigo, M., Pickering, T. R. & Bunn, H. T. 2010. Configurational approach to identifying the earliest hominin butchers. PNAS Early Edition .

Donner, J. 1995. The Quaternary History of Scandinavia. World and Regional Geology 7. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

Doronichev, V. B. 2008. The Lower Paleolithic in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus: a reappraisal of the data and new approaches. PaleoAnthropology 2008: 107–57.Google Scholar

Doronichev, V. & Golovanova, L. 2010, Beyond the Acheulean: a view of the Lower Paleolithic occupation of Western Eurasia. Quaternary International 223–4: 327–44.Google Scholar

Dunbar, R. 1996. Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language. Faber & Faber: London.

Dunbar, R. 2004. The Human Story. A New History of Mankind’s Evolution. Faber & Faber: London.

Eastham, A. 1989. Cova Negra and Gorham’s Cave: evidence of the place of birds in Mousterian communities, pp. 349–57 in (Clutton-Brock, J., ed.) The Walking Larder, Patterns of Domestication, Pastoralism and Predation. Unwin Hyman: London.

Eastham, A. 1999. Buhlen Upper Cave: the avifauna. An interim report. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 45: 251–66.Google Scholar

Ehlers, J. 1994. Allgemeine und historische Quartärgeologie. Enke: Stuttgart.

Endicott, P., Ho, S. Y. W. & Stringer, C. 2010. Using genetic evidence to evaluate four palaeoanthropological hypotheses for the timing of Neanderthal and modern human origins. Journal of Human Evolution 59: 87–95.Google Scholar

d’Errico, F. 2003. The invisible frontier. A multiple species model for the origin of behavioral modernity. Evolutionary Anthropology 12: 188–202.Google Scholar

d´Errico, F., Zilhão, J., Julien, M., Baffier, D. & Pelegrin, J. 1998. Neanderthal acculturation in Western Europe? A critical review of the evidence and its interpretation. Current Anthropology 39 (Supplement June): 1–44.Google Scholar

Féblot-Augustins, J. 1997. La circulation des matières premières au Paléolithique. Synthèse des données – perspectives comportementales. E.R.A.U.L. 75: Liège.

Féblot-Augustins, J. 1999. Raw material transport and settlement systems in the European Lower and Middle Palaeolithic: continuity, change and variability, pp. 193–214 in (Roebroeks, W. & Gamble, C., eds.) The Middle Palaeolithic Occupation of Europe. University of Leiden: Leiden.

Fiedler, L. (ed.) 1997. Archäologie der ältesten Kultur in Deutschland – Ein Sammelwerk zum älteren Paläolithikum, der Zeit des Homo erectus und des frühen Neandertalers. Materialien zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte von Hessen 18: Wiesbaden.

Fiedler, L. & Hilbert, K. 1987. Archäologische Untersuchungsergebnisse der mittelpaläolithischen Station in Edertal- Buhlen, Kr. Waldeck-Frankenberg. Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 17: 135–50.Google Scholar

Fiedler, L. & Rosendahl, G. 2007. Die Artefakte und die Kultur des Menschen von Mauer, pp. 36–41 in (Liebig, V. & Rosendahl, W., eds.) Spuren im Sand. Der Urmensch und die Sande von Mauer. Kulturgestein 3: Stuttgart.

Fiore, I., Gala, M. & Tagliacozzo, A. 2004. Ecology and subsistence strategies in the eastern Italian Alps during the Middle Palaeolithic. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 14: 273–86.Google Scholar

Floss, H. 1994. Rohmaterialversorgung im Paläolithikum des Mittelrheingebietes. Monographien des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 21. Habelt: Bonn.

Foley, R. A. & Lahr, M. M. 1997. Mode 3 technologies and the evolution of modern humans. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 7: 3–36.Google Scholar

Foley, R. A. & Lahr, M. M. 2002. On stony ground: lithic technology, human evolution, and the emergence of culture. Evolutionary Anthropology 12: 109–22.Google Scholar

Frenzel, B. 1985. Die Umwelt des Menschen im Eiszeitalter. Quartär 35/36: 7–33.Google Scholar

Gabounia, L., de Lumley, M.-A., Vekua, A., Lordkipanidze, D. & de Lumley, H. 2002. Découverte d’un nouvel hominidé à Dmanissi (Transcaucasie, Géorgie). Comptes Rendus Paleovol 1: 243–53.Google Scholar

Gamble, C. 1993. People on the move: interpretations of regional variation in Palaeolithic Europe, pp. 37–55 in (Chapman, J. & Dolukhanov, P., eds.) Cultural Transformations and Interactions in Eastern Europe. Avebury: Aldershot.

Gamble, C. 1999. The Palaeolithic Societies of Europe. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

Gamble, C. & Roebroeks, W. 1999. The Middle Palaeolithic: a point of inflection, pp. 3–21 in (Roebroeks, W. & Gamble, C., eds.) The Middle Palaeolithic Occupation of Europe. University of Leiden: Leiden.

Gaudzinski, S. 1993. Jagdbeutediversität im Mittelpaläolithikum? Neue Fragestellungen aus dem Bereich der Taphonomie. Ethnographisch-Archäologische Zeitschrift 34: 16–25.Google Scholar

Gaudzinski, S. 1995a. Wiesentjäger in Wallertheim. Zur Taphonomie einer mittelpaläolithischen Fundstelle in Rheinhessen. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 39: 245–423.Google Scholar

Gaudzinski, S. 1995b. Wallertheim revisited: a re-analysis of the fauna from the Middle Palaeolithic site of Wallertheim (Rheinhessen/Germany). Journal of Archaeological Science 22: 51–66.Google Scholar

Gaudzinski, S. 1996a. Kärlich-Seeufer. Untersuchungen zu einer altpaläolithischen Fundstelle im Neuwieder Becken (Rheinland, Deutschland). Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 43: 1–242.Google Scholar

Gaudzinski, S. 1996b. On bovid assemblages and their consequences for the knowledge of subsistence patterns in the Middle Palaeolithic. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 62: 19–39.

Gaudzinski, S. 1999a. The faunal record of the Lower and Middle Pleistocene of Europe: remarks on human interference, pp. 215–33 in (Roebroeks, W. & Gamble, C., eds.) The Middle Palaeolithic Occupation of Europe. University of Leiden: Leiden.

Gaudzinski, S. 1999b: Knochen und Knochengeräte der mittelpaläolithischen Fundstelle Salzgitter-Lebenstedt. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 45: 163–221.Google Scholar

Gaudzinski, S. 2002a. Die israelische Fundstelle ‘Ubeidiya im Kontext der Ausbreitung des frühen Menschen nach Eurasien. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 47: 99–122.Google Scholar

Gaudzinski, S. 2002b. The Eemian Interglacial (OIS 5e) in Northern Europe: remarks on hominid subsistence, pp. 41–52 in (Tuffreau, A. & Roebroeks, W., eds.) Le Dernier Interglaciaire et les occupations humaines du Paléolithique moyen. CERP: Lille.

Gaudzinski, S. 2004a. Subsistence patterns of Early Pleistocene hominids in the Levant. Taphonomic evidence from the Ubeidiya Formation. Journal of Archaeological Science 31: 65–75.Google Scholar

Gaudzinski, S. 2004b. A matter of high resolution? The Eemian Interglacial (OIS 5e) in North-Central Europe and Middle Palaeolithic subsistence. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 16 (3–4): 201–11.Google Scholar

Gaudzinski, S. & Roebroeks, W. 2000a. Adults only. Reindeer hunting at the Middle Palaeolithic site Salzgitter-Lebenstedt, Northern Germany. Journal of Human Evolution 38: 497–521.Google Scholar

Gaudzinski, S. 2000b. Zur systematischen Verwertung der Jagdbeute im Mittelpaläolithikum. Ein Beitrag aus Salzgitter-Lebenstedt. Germania 78: 247–71.Google Scholar

Gaudzinski, S. & Turner, E. (eds.) 1999. The Role of Early Humans in the Accumulation of European Lower and Middle Palaeolithic Bone Assemblages. Monographien des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 42. Habelt: Bonn.

Gaudzinski, S., Turner, E., Anzidei, A. P., Alvarez-Fernández, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cinq-Mars, J., Dobosi, V. T., Hannus, A., Johnson, E., Münzel, S. C., Scheer, A. & Villa, P. 2005. The use of Proboscidean remains in every-day Palaeolithic life. Quaternary International 126–8: 179–94.Google Scholar

Gaudzinski-Windheuser, S. 2005. Subsistenzstrategien frühpleistozäner Hominiden in Eurasien. Taphonomische Faunenbetrachtungen der Fundstellen der ‘Ubeidiya-Formation (Israel). Monographien des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 61. Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum: Mainz.

Gaudzinski-Windheuser, S. 2010. Preliminary results on the analyses of bone surface modifications at Neumark-Nord 1, pp. 427–9 in (Meller, H., ed.) Elefantenreich. Eine Fossilwelt in Europa. Landesamt für Vorgeschichte: Halle.

Gaudzinski-Windheuser, S. & Niven, L. 2009. Hominin subsistence patterns during the Middle and Late Paleolithic in Northwestern Europe, pp. 99–111 in (Hublin, J.-J. & Richards, M. P., eds.) The Evolution of Hominin Diets. Integrating Approaches to the Study of Palaeolithic Subsistence. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series. Springer: New York.

Geyh, M. A. & Müller, H. 2005. Numerical 230Th/U dating and a palynological review of the Holsteinian/Hoxnian Interglacial. Quaternary Science Reviews 24 (16–17): 1861–72.Google Scholar

Geyh, M. A. 2006. Missing evidence for two Holstein-like Interglacials. Reply to the comments by J. D. Scourse on: Numerical 230Th/U dating and a palynological review of the Holsteinian/Hoxnian Interglacial. Quaternary Science Reviews 25 (21–2): 3072–3.Google Scholar

Gibbon, R. J., Granger, D. E., Kuman, K. & Partridge, T. C. 2009. Early Acheulean technology in the Rietputs Formation, South Africa, dated with cosmogenic nuclides. Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2): 152–60.Google Scholar

Goren-Inbar, N., Feibel, C. S., Verosub, K. L., Melamed, Y., Kislev, M. E., Tchernov, E. & Saragusti, I. 2000. Pleistocene milestones on the Out-of-Africa corridor at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel. Science 289: 944–7.Google Scholar

Goren-Inbar, N., Sharon, G., Melamed, Y. & Kislev, M. 2002. Nuts, nut cracking, and pitted stones at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 99: 2455–60.Google Scholar

Gorjanovíc-Kramberger, D. 1906. Der diluviale Mensch von Krapina in Kroatien. C. W. Kreidel: Wiesbaden.

Gowlett, J. A. J., Hallos, J., Hounsell, S., Brant, V. & Debenham, N. C. 2005. Beeches Pit: archaeology, assemblage dynamics and early fire history of a Middle Pleistocene site in East Anglia, UK. Eurasian Prehistory 3 (2): 3–38.Google Scholar

Grahmann, R. 1952. Urgeschichte der Menschheit. Einführung in die Abstammungs- und Kulturgeschichte der Menschheit. W. Kohlhammer Verlag: Stuttgart.

Grahmann, R. 1955. The lower palaeolithic Site of Markkleeberg and other comparable localities near Leipzig. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (Philadelphia) N. S. 45: 509–687.Google Scholar

Green, R. E., Krause, J., Briggs, A. W., Maricic, T., Stenzel, U., Kircher, M., Patterson, N., Li, H., Zhai, W., Fritz, M. H. -Y., Hansen, N. F., Durand, E. Y., Malaspinas, A. -S., Jensen, J. D., Marques-Bonet, T., Alkan, C., Prüfer, K., Meyer, M., Burbano, H. A., Good, J. M., Schultz, R., Aximu-Petri, A., Butthof, A., Höber, B., Höffner, B., Siegemund, M., Weihmann, A., Nusbaum, C., Lander, E. S., Russ, C., Novod, N., Affourtit, J., Egholm, M., Verna, C., Rudan, C., Brajkovic, D., Kucan, Ž., Gušic, I., Doronichev, V. B., Golovanova, L. V., Lalueza-Fox, C., de la Rasilla, M., Fortea, J., Rosas, A., Schmitz, R. W., Johnson, P. L. F., Eichler, E. E., Falush, D., Birney, E., Mullikin, J. C., Slatkin, M., Nielsen, R., Kelso, J., Lachmann, M., Reich, D. & Pääbo, S. 2010. A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome. Science 328: 710–22.Google Scholar

Gülec, E., White, T., Howell, F. C., Özer, I., Sagir, M., Yilmaz, H. & Kuhn, S. 2009. The Lower Pleistocene lithic assemblage from Dursunlu (Konya), Central Anatolia, Turkey. Antiquity: 83: 11–22.Google Scholar

Guthrie, R. D. 1984. Mosaics, allelochemics and nutrients: an ecological theory of Late Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions, pp. 259–98 in (Martin, P. S. & Klein, R., eds.) Quaternary Extinctions: A Prehistoric Revolution. University of Arizona Press: Tucson.

Hahn, J. 1977. Aurignacien. Das ältere Jungpaläolithikum in Mittel- und Osteuropa. Fundamenta Reihe A 9. Böhlau Verlag: Cologne and Vienna.

Haidle, M. N. & Pawlik, A. E. 2010. The earliest settlement of Germany: is there anything out there? Quaternary International 223–4: 143–53.Google Scholar

Hartz, S. 1986. Paläolithische Funde aus dem Altmoränengebiet Nordfrieslands. Offa 43: 105–47.Google Scholar

Harvati, K., Frost, S. R. & McNulty, K. P. 2004. Neanderthal taxonomy reconsidered: implications of 3D primate models of intra- and interspecific differences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 101: 1147–52.Google Scholar

Hayden, B. 1993. The cultural capacities of Neandertals. Journal of Human Evolution 24: 113–46.Google Scholar

de Heinzelin, J., Clark, J. D., White, T., Hart, W., Renne, P., WoldeGabriel, G., Beyene, Y. & Vrba, E. 1999. Environment and behavior of 2.5-million-year-old Bouri hominids. Science 284: 625–9.Google Scholar

Henri, A. G., Brooks, A. S. & Piperno, D. R. 2010. Microfossils in calculus demonstrate consumption of plants and cooked foods in Neanderthal diets (Shanidar III, Iraq; Spy I and II, Belgium). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA online. Available at (doi).

Henri-Martin, L. 1907–1910. Recherches sur l’évolution du Moustérien dans le gisement de la Quina. I – Industrie osseuse. Schleicher: Paris.

Higham, T., Jacobi, R., Julien, M., David, F., Basell, L., Wood, R., Davies, W. & Bronk Ramsey, C. 2010. Chronology of the Grotte du Renne (France) and implications for the context of ornaments and human remains within the Châtelperronian. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA online. Available at (doi.

Hochgesand, K. 1997. Älteres Paläolithikum aus dem Gebiet an Nahe und nördlichem Oberrhein: Fundstellen und Artefakte des älteren Paläolithikums, pp. 195–224 in (Fiedler, L., ed.) Archäologie der ältesten Kultur in Deutschland – Ein Sammelwerk zum älteren Paläolithikum, der Zeit des Homo erectus und des frühen Neandertalers. Materialien zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte von Hessen 18: Wiesbaden.

Hoffecker, J. F. 2009. Neanderthal and modern human diet in Eastern Europe, pp. 87–98 in (Hublin, J.-J. & Richards, M. P., eds.) The Evolution of Hominin Diets. Integrating Approaches to the Study of Palaeolithic Subsistence. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series. Springer: New York.

Holliday, T. W. 1997a. Postcranial evidence of cold adaptation in European Neanderthals. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 104: 245–58.Google Scholar

Holliday, T. W. 1997b. Body proportions in Late Pleistocene Europe and modern human origins. Journal of Human Evolution 32: 423–48.Google Scholar

Holst, D. 2010. Hazelnut economy of early Holocene hunter-gatherers: a case study from Mesolithic Duvensee, northern Germany. Journal of Archaeological Science 37: 2871–80.Google Scholar

Hublin, J.-J. 1982. Les anténéandertaliens: présapiens ou prénéandertaliens? Géobios, spec. Mem. 6: 345–57.Google Scholar

Hublin, J.-J. 1988. Les plus anciens représentants de la lignée prénéandertalienne, pp. 81–94 in (Trinkaus, E., ed.) L’Homme de Néandertal 3: l’Anatomie. ERAUL 30: Liège.

Hublin, J.-J. 2009. The origin of Neandertals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 106: 16022–7.Google Scholar

Hublin, J.-J. & Roebroeks, W. 2009. Ebb and flow or regional extinctions? On the character of Neandertal occupation of northern environments. Comptes Rendus Palevol 8 (5): 503–9.Google Scholar

Hülle, W. M. 1977. Die Ilsenhöhle unter Burg Ranis/Thüringen. Eine paläolithische Jägerstation. Fischer: Stuttgart and New York.

Huntley, B. & Allen, J. R. M. 2003. Glacial environments III: Palaeo-vegetation patterns in Last Glacial Europe, pp. 79–102 in (Van Andel, T. & Davies, W., eds.) Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape during the Last Glaciation. McDonald Institute Monographs: Cambridge.

Isaac, G. L. 1981. Stone Age visiting cards: approaches to the study of early land use patterns, pp. 131–55 in (Hodder, I., Isaac, G. L. & Hammond, N., eds.) Pattern of the Past. Studies in Honour of David Clarke. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

Iovita, R. & McPerron, S. P. 2011. The handaxe reloaded: a morphometric reassessment of Acheulian and Middle Paleolithic handaxes. Journal of Human Evolution 61: 61–74.Google Scholar

Isler, K. & van Schaik, C. P. 2009. The expensive brain: a framework for explaining evolutionary changes in brain size. Journal of Human Evolution 57: 392–400.Google Scholar

Jacob-Friesen, K. H. 1956. Eiszeitliche Elefantenjäger in der Lüneburger Heide. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 3: 1–22.Google Scholar

Jaubert, J. 1999. The Middle Palaeolithic of Quercy (Southwest France): palaeoenvironment and human settlements, pp. 93–106 in (Roebroeks, W. & Gamble, C., eds.) The Middle Palaeolithic Occupation of Europe. University of Leiden: Leiden.

Jennings, R. P., Pacheco, F. G., Barton, R. N. E., Collcutt, S. N., Gale, R., Gleed-Owen, C. P., Gutiérrez López, J. M., Higham, T. F. G., Parker, A., Price, C., Rhodes, E., Santiago Pérez, A., Schwenninger, J. L. & Turner, E. 2009. New dates and palaeoenvironmental evidence for the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic occupation of Higueral de Valleja Cave, southern Spain. Quaternary Science Reviews 28: 830–9.Google Scholar

Jöris, O. 1997. Der spätmittelpaläolithische Fundplatz Buhlen (Grabungen 1966–69). Stratigraphie, Steinartefakte und Fauna des Oberen Fundplatzes. Dissertation, University of Cologne.

Jöris, O. 2001. Der spätmittelpaläolithische Fundplatz Buhlen (Grabungen 1966–69). Stratigraphie, Steinartefakte und Fauna des Oberen Fundplatzes. Universitätsforschungen zur Prähistorischen Archäologie. Habelt: Bonn.

Jöris, O. 2003. Die aus der Kälte kamen ... von der Kultur Später Neandertaler in Mitteleuropa. Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte 11 (2002): 5–32.Google Scholar

Jöris, O. 2004. Zur chronostratigraphischen Stellung der spätmittelpaläolithischen Keilmessergruppen. Der Versuch einer kulturgeographischen Abgrenzung einer mittelpaläolithischen Formengruppe. Berichte der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission 84: 49–153.Google Scholar

Jöris, O. 2005. Aus einer anderen Welt – Europa zur Zeit des Neandertalers, pp. 47–70 and 200 in (Conard, N. J., Kölbl, S. & Schürle, W., eds.) Vom Neandertaler zum modernen Menschen. Alb und Donau – Kunst und Kultur 46. Thorbecke: Stuttgart.

Jöris, O. 2006. Bifacially backed knives (Keilmesser) in the Central European Middle Palaeolithic, pp. 287–310 in (Goren-Inbar, N. & Sharon, G., eds.) Axe Age. Acheulian Toolmaking from Quarry to Discard. Approaches to Anthropological Archaeology. Equinox: London.

Jöris, O. 2008. Der altpaläolithische Fundplatz Dmanisi (Georgien, Kaukasus). Archäologische Funde und Befunde des Liegenden Fundkomplexes im Kontext der frühen Menschheitsentwicklung. Monographien des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 74. Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum: Mainz.

Jöris, O. & Baales, M. 2003. Zur Altersstellung der Schöninger Speere, pp. 281–8 in (Burdukiewicz, J., Fiedler, J., Heinrich, W.-D., Justus, A. & Brühl, E., eds.) Erkenntnis Jäger. Kultur und Umwelt des frühen Menschen (Festschrift Dietrich Mania). Veröffentlichungen des Landesamtes für Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt 57: Halle.

Jöris, O. & Street, M. 2008. At the end of the 14C time scale – the Middle to Upper Paleolithic record of Western Eurasia. Journal of Human Evolution 55: 782–802.Google Scholar

Jöris, O., Street, M., Terberger, T. & Weninger, B. 2011. Radiocarbon dating the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition: the demise of the last Neanderthals and the first appearance of anatomically modern humans in Europe, pp. 239–98 in (Condemi, S. & Weniger, G.-C., eds.) Continuity and Discontinuity in the Peopling of Europe. One Hundred and Fifty Years of Neanderthal Study. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Springer: New York.

Johansen, L. & Stapert, D. 1996. Handaxes from Denmark: Neandertal tools or “vicious flints”? Palaeohistoria 37/38: 1–28.Google Scholar

Johanson, D. & Edgar, B. 1996. From Lucy to Language. Simon & Schuster: New York.

Junkmanns, J. 1991. Die Steinartefakte aus Achenheim in der Sammlung Paul Wernert. Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 21: 1–16.Google Scholar

Kahlke, R. D. 1994. Die Entstehungs-, Entwicklungs- und Verbreitungsgeschichte des oberpleistozänen Mammuthus-Coelodonta-Faunenkomplexes in Eurasien (Großsäuger). Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft 546. E. Schweizerbart: Frankfurt.

Kappelman, J., Alçiçek, M. C., Kazancı, N., Schultz, M., Özkul, M. & Şen, Ş. 2008. Brief communication: first Homo erectus from Turkey and implications for migrations into temperate Eurasia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 135: 110–16.Google Scholar

Katoh, S., Nagaoka, S., WoldeGabriel, G., Renne, P., Snow, M. G., Beyene, Y. & Suwa, G. 2000. Chronostratigraphy and correlation of the Plio-Pleistocene tephra layers of the Konso Formation, southern Main Ethiopian Rift, Ethiopia. Quaternary Science Reviews 19: 1305–17.Google Scholar

Kindler, L. 2005. Eine Höhle und ihre Gäste. Archäologie in Deutschland 2005 (2): 26–7.Google Scholar

Kindler, L., Jöris, O., Baales, M. & Rüschoff-Thale, B. 2005. Die Balver Höhle: Alte Funde – Neue Ergebnisse, pp. 318–21 in (Horn, H. G., Hellenkemper, H., Isenberg, G. & Kunow, J., eds.) Von Anfang an. Archäologie in Nordrhein-Westfalen. Schriften zur Bodendenkmalpflege in Nordrhein-Westfalen 8. Philipp von Zabern: Mainz.

Kolen, J. 1999. Hominids without homes: on the nature of Middle Palaeolithic settlement in Europe, pp. 139–75 in (Roebroeks, W. & Gamble, C., eds.) The Middle Palaeolithic Occupation of Europe. University of Leiden: Leiden.

Koller, J., Baumer, U. & Mania, D. 2001. High-tech in the Middle Palaeolithic: Neandertal-manufactured pitch identified. European Journal of Archaeology 4: 385–97.Google Scholar

Kolosov, J. G. 1983. Musterstie stojanki raiona Belogorska (k voprosu o periodizacii rennego paleolita Kryma). Akademia Nauk: Kiev.

Korisettar, R. & Petraglia, M. D. 1998. The archaeology of the Lower Palaeolithic: background and overview, pp. 1–22 in (Petraglia, M. D. & Korisettar, R., eds.) Early Human Behaviour in Global Context. Routledge: London.

Koulakovska, L., Usik, V. & Haesaerts, P. 2010. Early Paleolithic of Korolevo site (Transcarpathia, Ukraine). Quaternary International 223–4: 116–30.Google Scholar

Kretzoi, M. & Dobosi, T. V. (eds.) 1990. Vértesszölös. Site. Man and Culture. Akadémiai Kiadó: Budapest.

Krings, M., Stone, A., Schmitz, R. W., Krainitzki, H., Stoneking, M. & Pääbo, S. 1997. Neandertal DNA sequences and the origin of modern humans. Cell 90: 19–30.Google Scholar

Kuhn, S. L. 2010. Was Anatolia a bridge or a barrier to early hominin dispersals? Quaternary International 223–4: 434–5.Google Scholar

Lalueza-Fox, C., Rosas, A., Estalrrich, A., Gigli, E., Campos, P. F., García-Tabernero, A., García-Vargas, S., Sánchez-Quinto, F., et al. 2011. Genetic evidence for patrilocal mating behaviour among Neandertal groups. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 108 (1): 250–3.Google Scholar

Leakey, M. D. 1971. Olduvai Gorge 3. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

Lee, J. R., Rose, J., Hamblin, R. J. O., & Moorlock, B. S. P. 2004. Dating the earliest lowland glaciation of eastern England: a pre-MIS 12 early Middle Pleistocene Happisburgh glaciation. Quaternary Science Reviews 23: 1551–66.Google Scholar

Lee, R. B. 1977. What hunters do for a living. Or how to make out on scarce resources, pp. 30–48 in (Lee, R. B. & Devore, I., eds.) Man the Hunter. Aldine: Chicago.

Lefèvre, D., Raynal, J.-P., Vernet, G., Kieffer, G. & Piperno, M. 2010. Tephro-startigraphy and the age of ancient southern Italian Acheulean settlements: the sites of Loreto and Notarchirico (Venosa, Basilicata, Italy). Quaternary International 223–4: 360–8.Google Scholar

Le Gall, O. 1989. Analyse palethnologique de l’ichtiofaune de la Grotte Vaufrey, pp. 565–8 in (Rigaud, J.-P., ed.) La Grotte Vaufrey, Paléoenvironnements, chronologie et activités humains. Mémoire de la Société Préhistorique Francaise 19: Paris.

Leonard, W. R., Sørensen, M. V., Galloway, V. A., Spencer, G. J., Mosher, M. J., Osipova, L. & Spitsyn, V. A. 2002. Climatic influences on basal metabolic rates among circumpolar populations. American Journal of Human Biology 14: 609–20.Google Scholar

Limondin-Lozouet, N., Nicoud, E., Antoine, P., Auguste, P., Bahain, J.-J., Dabkowski, J., Dupéron, J., Dupéron, M., Falguères, C., Ghaleb, B., Jolly-Saad, M.-C. & Mercier, N. 2010. Oldest evidence of Acheulean occupation in the Upper Seine Valley (France) from an MIS 11 Tufa at La Celle. Quaternary International 223–4: 299–311.Google Scholar

Litt, T. 1990. Pollenanalytische Untersuchungen zur Vegetations- und Klimaentwicklung während des Jungpleistozäns in den Becken von Gröbern und Grabschütz, pp. 92–105 in (Eissmann, L., ed.) Die Eemwarmzeit und die frühe Weichseleiszeit im Saale-Elbe-Gebiet: Geologie, Paläontologie, Palökologie. Ein Beitrag zum jüngeren Quartär in Mitteleuropa. Altenburger Naturwissenschaftliche Forschungen 5: Altenburg.

De Loecker, D. 1993. A Saalian riverside settlement: Maastricht-Belvédère Site K (Limbourg, The Netherlands). Notae Praehistoricae 12: 7–14.Google Scholar

De Loecker, D. 1994. On the refitting analysis of Site K: a Middle Palaeolthic findspot at Maastricht-Belvédère (The Netherlands). Ethnographisch-Archäologische Zeitschrift 35: 107–17.Google Scholar

De Loecker, D. 2004. Beyond the Site: The Saalian Archaeological Record at Maastricht-Belvédère (The Netherlands). Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 35/36 University of Leiden: Leiden.

Lordkipanidze, D., Jashashvili, T., Vekua, A., Ponce de León, M. S., Zollikofer, C. P. E., Rightmire, G. P., Pontzer, H., Ferring, R., Oms, O., Tappen, M., Bokhsianidze, M., Agusti, J., Kahlke, R., Kiladze, G., Martinez-Navarro, B., Mouskhelishvili, A., Nioradze, M. & Rook, L. 2007. Postcranial evidence from early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia. Nature 449: 305–10.Google Scholar

de Lumley, H. 1969. A Paleolithic camp at Nice. Scientific American 220: 42–50.Google Scholar

de Lumley, H., Fournier, A., Krzepkowska, J. & Echassoux, A. 1988. L’industrie du Pléistocene inférieur de la grotte du Vallonet, Roquebrune-Cap Martin, Alpes Maritimes. L’Anthropologie 92: 501–614.Google Scholar

Macdonald, K., Roebroeks, W. & Verpoorte, A. 2009. An energetics perspective in the Neandertal record, pp. 211–20 in (Hublin, J.-J. & Richards, M. P., eds.) The Evolution of Hominin Diets. Integrating Approaches to the Study of Palaeolithic Subsistence. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series. Springer: New York.

Mangerud, J., Astakhov, V., Jakobsson, M. & Svendsen, J. I. 2001. Huge Ice-Age lakes in Russia. Journal of Quaternary Sciences 16: 773–7.Google Scholar

Mangerud, J., Jakobsson, M., Alexanderson, H., Astakhov, V., Clarke, G. K. C., Henriksen, M., Hjort, C., Krinner, G., Lunkka, J.-P., Möller, P., Murray, A., Nikolskaja, O., Saarnisto, M. & Svendsen, J. I. 2004. Ice-dammed lakes and rerouting of the drainage of Northern Eurasia during the Last Glaciation. Quaternary Science Reviews 23: 1313–32.Google Scholar

Mania, D. 1995. The earliest occupation of Europe: the Elbe-Saale region (Germany), pp. 85–101 in (Roebroeks, W. & van Kolfschoten, T., eds.) The Earliest Occupation of Europe. Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 27: Leiden.

Mania, D. 1997. Die Forschungsgrabung Bilzingsleben von 1969 bis 1997. Praehistorica Thuringica 1: 4–8.Google Scholar

Mania, D. (ed.) 2008. Neumark-Nord – ein interglaziales Ökosystem des mittelpaläolithischen Menschen. Veröffentlichungen des Landesamtes für Archäologie Sachsen Anhalt 62: Halle.

Mania, D. (ed.) 2010. Die Fossilien von Neumark-Nord, pp. 99–116 in (Meller, H., ed.) Elefantenreich. Eine Fossilwelt in Europa. Landesamt für Vorgeschichte: Halle.

Mania, D. & Weber, T. 1986. Bilzingsleben III. Homo erectus – seine Kultur und seine Umwelt. Veröffentlichungen des Landesmuseums Halle 32: Berlin.

Marks, A. E. 1988. The curation of stone tools during the Upper Pleistocene. A view from the Central Negev, Israel, pp. 275–85 in (Dibble, H. L. & Montet-White, A., eds.) Upper Pleistocene Prehistory of Western Eurasia. Symposium Philadelphia 1987. University Museum Monograph 54: Philadelphia.

Martínez, K., Garcia, J., Carbonell, E., Agustí, J., Bahain, J.-J., Blain, H.-A., Burjachs, F., Cáreres, I., Duval, M., Falguères, C., Gómez, M. & Huguet, R. 2010. A new Lower Pleistocene archeological site in Europe (Vallparadís, Barcelona, Spain). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 107 (13): 5762–7.Google Scholar

Martrat, B., Grimalt, J. O., López-Martínez, C., Cacho, O., Sierro, F. J., Flores, J. A., Zahn, R., Canals, M., Curtis, J. H. & Hodell, D. A. 2004. Abrupt temperature changes in the Western Mediterranean over the past 250,000 years. Science 306: 1762–5.Google Scholar

Marwick, B. 2003. Pleistocene exchange networks as evidence for the evolution of language. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 13: 67–81.Google Scholar

Mazza, P. P. A., Martini, F., Sala, B., Magi, M., Colombina, M. P., Giachi, G., Landucci, F., Lemorini, C., Modugno, F. & Ribechini, E. 2006. A new Palaeolithic discovery: tar-hafted stone tools in a European Mid-Pleistocene bone-bearing bed. Journal of Archaeological Science 33: 1310–18.Google Scholar

McBrearty, S. & Brooks, A. S. 2000. The revolution that wasn’t: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior. Journal of Human Evolution 39: 453–563.Google Scholar

McDermott, F., Grün, R., Stringer, C. B. & Hawkesworth, C. J. 1993. Mass-spectrometric U-series dates for Israeli Neanderthal/early modern hominid sites. Nature 363: 252–5.Google Scholar

McNabb, J., 2007. The British Lower Palaeolithic. Routledge: London.

Mellars, P. 1996. The Neanderthal Legacy: An Archaeological Perspective from Western Europe. Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ.

Meller, H. (ed.) 2003. Geisteskraft. Alt- und Mittelpaläolithikum. Begleithefte zur Dauerausstellung im Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle 1: Halle.

deMenocal, P. 2004. African climate change and faunal evolution during the Plio-Pleistocene. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 220: 3–34.Google Scholar

Mercier, N., Valladas, H., Bar-Yosef, O., Vandermeersch, B., Stringer, C. & Joron, J.-L. 1993. Thermoluminescence date for the Mousterian burial site of Es-Skhul, Mt. Carmel. Journal of Archaeological Science 20 (2): 169–74.Google Scholar

Messager, E., Lordkipanidze, D., Kvavadze, E., Ferring, C. R. & Voinchet, P. 2010. Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of Dmanisi site (Georgia) based on palaeobotanical data. Quaternary International 223–4: 20–7.Google Scholar

Moncel, M.-H. 2010. Oldest human expansions in Eurasia: favouring and limiting factors. Quaternary International 223–4: 1–9.Google Scholar

de Mortillet, G. 1890. Origines de la Chasse, de la Pêche et de l’Agriculture, I, Chasse, Pêche. Lecrosnier et Babé: Paris.

Mounier, A., Marchal, F. & Condemi, S. 2009. Is Homo heidelbergensis a distinct species? New insight on the Mauer mandible. Journal of Human Evolution 56 (3): 219–46.Google Scholar

Mudelsee, M. & Schulz, M. 1997. The Mid-Pleistocene climate transition: onset of 100 ka cycle lags ice volume build-up by 280 ka. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 151: 117–23.Google Scholar

Mussi, M. 1999. The Neanderthals in Italy: a tale of many caves, pp. 49–80 in (Roebroeks, W. & Gamble, C., eds.) The Middle Palaeolithic Occupation of Europe. University of Leiden: Leiden.

Muttoni, M. R., Scardia, G., Kent, D. V., Swisher, C. C. & Manzi, G. 2009. Pleistocene magnetochronology of early hominin sites at Ceprano and Fontana Ranuccio, Italy. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 286: 255–68.Google Scholar

Oakley, K. P., Andrews, P. & Keeley, L. H. 1977. A re-appraisal of the Clacton spearpoint. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 43: 13–30.Google Scholar

Obermaier, H. 1925. El Hombre Fosil. Segunda edition, refundida y ampliada. Comision de investigaciones paleontológicos y prehistóricos 9: Madrid.

Palombo, M. R., Mussi, M., Agostini, S., Barbieri, M., Di Canzio, E., Di Rita, F., Fiore, I., Iacumin, P., Magri, D., Speranza, F. & Tagliacozzo, A. 2010. Human peopling of Italian intramontane basins: the early Middle Pleistocene site of Pagliare di Sassa (L’Aquila, central Italy). Quaternary International 223–4: 170–8.Google Scholar

Parfitt, S. A., Ashton, N. M., Lewis, S. G., Abel, R. L., Coope, G. R., Field, M. H., Gale, R., Hoare, P. G., Larkin, N. R., Lewis, M. D., Karloukovski, V., Maher, B. A., Peglar, S. M., Preece, R. C., Whittaker, J. E. & Stringer, C. B. 2010. Early Pleistocene human occupation at the edge of the boreal zone in Northwest Europe. Nature 466: 229–33.Google Scholar

Parfitt, S. A., Barendregt, R. W., Breda, M., Candy, I., Colloins, M. J., Coope, G. R., Durbridge, P., Field, M. H., Lee, J. R., Lister, A. M., Mutch, R., Penkman, K. E. H., Preece, R. C., Rose, J., Stringer, C. B., Symmons, R., Whittaker, J. E., Wymer, J. J. & Stuart, A. J. 2006. The earliest record of human activity in Northern Europe. Nature 438: 1008–12.Google Scholar

Parfitt, S. A. & Roberts, M. B. 1999. Human modification on faunal remains, pp. 395–415 in (Roberts, M. B. & Parfitt, S. A., eds.) Boxgrove – A Middle Pleistocene Hominid Site at Eastham Quarry, Boxgrove, West Sussex. English Heritage Archaeological Report 17: London.

Patou-Mathis, M. 2000. Neanderthal subsistence behaviours in Europe. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 10: 379–95.Google Scholar

Pavlov, P., Roebroeks, W. & Svedson, J. I. 2004. The Pleistocene colonization of Northeastern Europe: a report on recent research. Journal of Human Evolution 47: 3–17.Google Scholar

Peretto, C. 2006. The first peopling of Southern Europe: the Italian case. Comptes Rendus Palevol 5: 283–90.Google Scholar

Peretto, C., Biagi, P., Boschian, G., Broglio, A., De Stefani, M., Fasani, L., Fontana, F., Grifoni, R., Guerreschi, A., Iacopini, A., Minelli, A., Rala, R., Peresani, M., Radi, G., Ronchitelli, A., Sarti, L., Thun Hohenstein, U. & Tozzi, C. 2004. Living-floors and structures from the Lower Paleolithic to the Bronze Age in Italy. Colegium Anthropologicum 28: 63–88.Google Scholar

Pérez-Pérez, A., Espurz, V., Bermúdez de Castro, J. M., de Lumley, M. A. & Turbón, D. 2003. Non-occlusal dental microwear variability in a sample of Middle and Late Pleistocene human populations from Europe and the Near East. Journal of Human Evolution 44: 497–513.Google Scholar

Petit, J. R., Jouzel, J., Raynaud, D., Barkov, N. I., Barnola, J.-M., Basile, I., Bender, M., Chappellaz, J., Davis, M., Delaygue, G., Delmotte, M., Kotlyakov, V. M., Legrand, M., Lipenkov, V. Y., Lorius, C., Pépin, L., Ritz, C., Saltzman, E. & Stievenard, M. 1999. Climate and atmospheric history of the past 420,000 years from the Vostok ice core, Antarctica. Nature 399: 429–36.Google Scholar

Pettitt, P. 2011. The Palaeolithic Origins of Human Burial. Routledge: London and New York.

Peyrony, D. 1934. La Ferrassie: Moustérien – Périgordien – Arurignacien. Préhistoire 3: 1–92.Google Scholar

Ponce de León, M. S., Golovanova, L., Doronichev, V., Romaniova, G., Akazawa, T., Kondo, O., Ishida, H., & Zollikofer, C. P. E. 2008. Neanderthal brain size at birth provides insights into the evolution of human life history. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 105: 13,764–8.Google Scholar

Ponce de León, M. S. & Zollikofer, C. E. 2001. Neanderthal cranial ontogeny and its implications for late hominid diversity. Nature 412: 534–7.Google Scholar

Pope, M. 2004. Behavioural implications of biface discard: assemblage variability and land-use at the Middle Pleistocene site of Boxgrove, pp. 38–47 in (Walker, E. A., Wenban-Smith, F. & Healy, F., eds.) Lithics in Action. Lithic Studies Society Occasional Paper 8. Oxbow: Oxford.

Pope, M. & Roberts, M. 2005. Observation on the relationship between Palaeolithic individuals and artefact scatters at the Middle Pleistocene site of Boxgrove, UK, pp. 81–97 in (Gamble, C. & Porr, M., eds.) The Hominid Individual in Context. Routledge: London.

Praslov, N. D. 1995. The earliest occupation of the Russian Plain: a short note, pp. 61–6 in (Roebroeks, W. & van Kolfschoten, T., eds.) The Earliest Occupation of Europe. Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 27: Leiden.

Rabinovich, R., Gaudzinski, S. & Goren-Inbar, N. 2008. Systematic butchering of Fallow deer (Dama) at the early Middle Pleistocene Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, (Israel). Journal of Human Evolution 54: 134–49.Google Scholar

Radmilli, A. M. & Boschian, G. (eds.) 1996. Cli scavi a Castel di Guido. Instituto Italiano di Preistoria e Protostoria: Florence.

Rae, T. C., Koppe, T. & Stringer, C. B. 2011. The Neanderthal face is not cold adapted. Journal of Human Evolution 60 (2): 234–9.Google Scholar

Richards, M. P., Pettitt, P. B., Stiner, M. C. & Trinkaus, E. 2001. Stable isotope evidence for increasing dietary breadth in the European Mid-Upper Paleolithic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 98: 6528–32.Google Scholar

Richards, M. P. & Trinkaus, E. 2009. Isotopic evidence for the diets of European Neanderthals and early modern humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 106: 16,034–9.Google Scholar

Rieder, H. 2000. Die altpaläolithischen Wurfspeere von Schöningen, ihre Erprobung und ihre Bedeutung für die Lebensumwelt des Homo erectus. Praehistoria Thuringica 5: 68–75.Google Scholar

Rightmire, G. P. 2007. Later Middle Pleistocene Homo, pp. 1695–1715 in (Henke, W., Hardt, T. & Tattersall, I., eds.) Handbook of Paleoanthropology, vol. 3 (1). Springer: Berlin.

Rightmire, G. P., Lordkipanidze, D. & Vekua, A. 2006. Anatomical descriptions, comparative studies and evolutionary significance of the hominin skulls from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia. Journal of Human Evolution 50 (2): 115–41.Google Scholar

Rink, W. J., Richter, D., Schwarcz, H. P., Marks, A. E., Monigal, K. & Kaufmann, D. 2003. Age of the Middle Palaeolithic site of Rosh Ein Mor, Central Negev, Israel: implications for the age range of the Early Levantine Mousterian of the Levantine Corridor. Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 195–204.Google Scholar

Rivals, F., Kacimi, S. & Moutoussamy, J. 2004. Artiodactyls, favourite game of prehistoric hunters at the Caune de l’Arago Cave (Tautavel, France). Opportunistic or selective hunting strategies? European Journal of Wildlife Research 50: 25–32.Google Scholar

Roberts, M. B., Gamble, C. S. & Bridgland, D. R. 1995. The earliest occupation of Europe: the British Isles, pp. 165–91 in (Roebroeks, W. & van Kolfschoten, T., eds.) The Earliest Occupation of Europe. Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 27: Leiden.

Roche, H. & Kibunjia, M. 1994. Les sites archaéologiques plio-pléistocènes de la formation de Nachukui, West Turkana, Kenya: bilan synthétique 1997–2001. Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris 318 (Série II): 1145–51.Google Scholar

Roebroeks, W. 2001. Hominid behaviour and the earliest occupation of Europe: an exploration. Journal of Human Evolution 41: 437–61.Google Scholar

Roebroeks, W., Conard, N. J. & van Kolfschoten, T. 1992a. Dense forests, cold steppes and the Palaeolithic settlement of Northern Europe. Current Anthropology 33: 551–86.Google Scholar

Roebroeks, W., De Loecker, D., Hennekens, P. & van Ieperen, M. 1992b. “A veil of stones”: on the interpretation of an Early Middle Palaeolithic low density find scatter at Maastricht-Belvédère (The Netherlands). Analecta Praehistoria Leidensia 25: 1–16.Google Scholar

Roebroeks, W. & van Ieperen, M. 1993. On the archaeology of the Maastricht-Belvédère pit. Mededelingen Rijks Geologische Dienst 47: 69–79.Google Scholar

Roebroeks, W., Kolen, J. & Rensink, E. 1988. Planning depth, anticipation and the organization of Middle Palaeolithic technology: the “Archaic Natives” meet Eve’s descendants. Helinium XXVIII: 17–34.Google Scholar

Rolland, N. 2004. Was the emergence of home bases and domestic fire a punctuated event? A review of the Middle Pleistocene record in Eurasia. Asian Perspectives 43 (2): 248–80.Google Scholar

Ronen, A. 1995. Neandertaler und früher Homo sapiens im Nahen Osten. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 37: 3–17.Google Scholar

Rosas, A., Bastir, M., Martínez-Maza, C., García-Tabernero, A. & Lalueza-Fox, C. 2006. Inquiries into Neanderthal cranio-facial development and evolution. “Accretion” vs “organismal” models, pp. 37–70 in (Harvati, K. & Harrison, T., eds.) Neanderthals Revisited: New Approaches and Perspectives. Springer: New York.

Santonja, M. & Pérez-González, A. 2010. Mid-Pleistocene Acheulean industrial complex in the Iberian Peninsula. Quaternary International 223–4: 154–61.Google Scholar

Santonja, M. & Villa, P. 2006. The Acheulian of Western Europe, pp. 429–78 in (Goren-Inbar, N. & Sharon, G., eds.) Axe Age. Acheulian Toolmaking from Quarry to Discard. Approaches to Anthropological Archaeology. Equinox: London.

Schäfer, J., Laurat, T. & Kegler, J. F. 2003. Bericht zu den Ausgrabungen am altsteinzeitlichen Fundplatz Markkleeberg 1999 bis 2001. Arbeits- und Forschungsberichte zur sächsischen Bodendenkmalpflege 45: 13–47.Google Scholar

Schäfer, J., Laurat, T., Kegler, J. & Miersch, E. 2004. Neue archäologische Untersuchungen in Markkleeberg, Tagebau Espenhain (Lkr. Leipziger Land). Praehistorica Thuringia 10: 141–70.Google Scholar

Schiegl, S., Goldberg, P. & Conard, N. J. 2003. Palaeolithic burnt bone horizons from the Swabian Jura: distinguishing between in situ fireplaces and dumping areas. Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 18: 541–65.Google Scholar

Schmitt, D., Churchill, S. E. & Hylander, W. L. 2003. Experimental evidence concerning spear use in Neandertals and Early Modern Humans. Journal of Human Evolution 30: 103–14.Google Scholar

Schoetensack, O. 1908. Der Unterkiefer des Homo heidelbergensis aus den Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg. W. Engelmann: Leipzig.

Schulz, H.-P. 2001. The lithic industry from layers IV–V, Susliuola Cave, Western Finland, dated to the Eemian Interglacial. Préhistoire Européenne 16–17: 43–56.Google Scholar

Schwarcz, H. P., Grün, R., Vandermeersch, B., Bar-Yosef, O., Valladas, H. & Tchernov, E. 1988. ESR dates for the hominid burial site of Qafzeh in Israel. Journal of Human Evolution 17 (8): 733–7.Google Scholar

Scott, G. R. & Gibert, L. 2009. The oldest hand-axes in Europe. Nature 461: 82–5.Google Scholar

Segre, A. & Ascenzi, A. 1984. Fontana Ranuccio: Italy’s earliest Middle Pleistocene hominid site. Current Anthropology 25: 230–3.Google Scholar

Semaw, S., Rogers, M. & Stout, D. 2009. The Oldowan-Acheulian transition: is there a “Developed Oldowan” artifact tradition?, pp. 173–93 in (Camps, M. & Cuahan, P., eds.) Sourcebook of Paleolithic Transitions. Springer: New York.

Serangeli, J. & Bolus, M. 2008. Out of Europe – the dispersal of a successful European hominin form. Quartär 55: 83–98.Google Scholar

Shackleton, N. J., Berger, A. & Peltier, W. A. 1990. An alternative astronomical calibration of the Lower Pleistocene timescale based on ODP Site 677. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Earth Sciences 81: 251–61.Google Scholar

Shackleton, N. J., Crowhurst, S., Hagelberg, T., Pisias, N. G. & Schneider, D. A. 1995a. A new Late Neogene time scale: application to Leg 138 sites. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 138: 73–101.Google Scholar

Shackleton, N. J., Hall, M. A. & Pate, D. 1995b. Pliocene stable isotope stratigraphy of Site 846. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 138: 337–55.Google Scholar

Shchelinsky, V. E., Dodonoy, A. E., Baigusheva, V. S., Kulakov, S. A., Simakova, A. N., Tesakov, A. S. & Titov, V. V. 2010. Early Palaeolithic sites on the Taman Peninsula (Southern Azov Sea region, Russia): Bogatyri/Sinyaya Balka and Rodniki. Quaternary International 223–4: 28–35.Google Scholar

Shea, J. 1988. Spear points from the Middle Palaeolithic of the Levant. Journal of Field Archaeology 15: 441–50.Google Scholar

Shipton, C., Petraglia, M. D. & Paddayya, K. 2009. Inferring aspects of Acheulean sociality and cognition from lithic technology. In (Adams, B. & Blades, B. S., eds.) Lithic Materials and Paleolithic Societies. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. DOI: .

Sirakov, N., Guadelli, J.-L., Ivanova, S., Sirakova, S., Boudadi-Maligne, M., Dimitrova, I., Fernandez, P., Ferrier, C., Guadelli, A., Iordanova, D., Iordanova, N., Kovatcheva, M., Krumov, I., Leblanc, J.-C., Miteva, V., Popov, V., Spassov, R., Taneva, S. & Tsanova, T. 2010. An ancient continuous human presence in the Balkans and the beginnings of human settlement in Western Eurasia: a Lower Pleistocene example of the Lower Palaeolithic levels in Kozarnika Cave (north-western Bulgaria). Quaternary International 223–4: 94–106.Google Scholar

Solecki, R. S. 1972. Shanidar: the Humanity of Neanderthal Man. Penguin: London.

Sommer, D. J. 1999. The Shanidar IV “flower burial”: a re-evaluation of Neanderthal burial ritual. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 9 (1): 127–9.Google Scholar

Soressi, M. 2002. Le Moustérien de tradition acheuléenne du sud-ouest de la France. Discussion sur la signification du faciès à partir de l’étude comparée de quatre sites: Pech-de-l’Azé I, Le Moustier, La Rochette et la Grotte XVI. Thesis, l’Université Bordeaux I.

Stapert, D. 1993. Middle Palaeolithic dwellings: fact or fictions? Some applications of the ring and sector method. Palaeohistoria 32: 1–19.Google Scholar

Steegmann, A. T., Cerny, J. F. J. & Holliday, T. W. 2002. Neandertal cold adaptation: physiological and energetic factors. American Journal of Human Biology 14: 566–83.Google Scholar

Steele, T. E. 2004. Variation in mortality profiles of red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Middle Palaeolithc assemblages from Western Europe. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 14: 307–20.Google Scholar

Steguweit, L. 1999. Die Recken von Schöningen – 400.000 Jahre mit dem Speer. Mitteilungsblatt der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte 8: 5–14.Google Scholar

Stewart, J. R., van Kolfschoten, T., Markova, A. & Musil, R. 2003. The mammalian faunas of Europe during Oxygen Isotope Stage Three, pp. 103–30 in (Van Andel, T. & Davies, W., eds.) Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape during the Last Glaciation. McDonald Institute Monographs: Cambridge.

Stiner, M. C. 2004. Small game use and expanding diet breath in the Eastern Mediterranean basin during the Palaeolithic, pp. 499–513 in (Brugal, J.-P. & Dess, J.e, eds.) Petits Animaux et Sociétés Humaines. Du complément alimentaire aux ressources utilitaires. Editions APDCA: Antibes.

Stiner, M. C., Barkai, R. & Gopher, A. 2009. Cooperative hunting and meat sharing 400–200 kya at Qesem Cave, Israel. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 106 (32): 13,207–12.Google Scholar

Stiner, M. C. & Kuhn, S. L. 2009. Paleolithic diet and the division of labor in Mediterranean Eurasia, pp. 157–69 in (Hublin, J.-J. & Richards, M. P., eds.) The Evolution of Hominin Diets. Integrating Approaches to the Study of Palaeolithic Subsistence. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series. Springer: New York.

Stiner, M. C., Munro, N. D. & Surovell, T. A. 2000. The tortoise and the hare: small game use, the Broad Spectrum Revolution, and Paleolithic demography. Current Anthropology 41: 39–73.Google Scholar

Stodiek, U. & Paulsen, H. 1996. “Mit dem Pfeil, dem Bogen …” Technik der steinzeitlichen Jagd. Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Nordwestdeutschland, Beiheft 16. Isensee Verlag: Oldenburg.

Stopp, M. P. 2002. Ethnohistoric analogues for storage as an adaptive strategy in Northeastern Subarctic prehistory. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 21: 301–28.Google Scholar

Strasser, T. F., Panagopoulou, E., Runnels, C. N., Murray, P. M., Thompson, N., Karkanas, P., McCoy, F. W. & Wegmann, K. W. 2010. Stone Age seafaring in the Mediterranean. Evidence from the Plakias Region for Lower Palaeolithic and Mesolithic habitation of Crete. Hesperia 79: 145–90.Google Scholar

Straus, L. G. 2001. Africa and Iberia in the Pleistocene. Quaternary International 75: 91–102.Google Scholar

Stringer, C. B. 1985. Middle Pleistocene hominid variability and the origin of late Pleistocene humans, pp. 289–95 in (Delson, E., ed.) Ancestors: The Hard Evidence. Partridge: New York.

Stringer, C. B. 2006. Homo britannicus. The Incredible Story of Human Life in Britain. Penguin: London.

Stringer, C. B., Finlayson, J. C., Barton, R. N. E., Fernández-Jalvo, Y., Cáceres, I., Sabin, R. C., Rhodes, E. J., Currant, A. P., Rodríguez-Vidal, J., Giles-Pacheco, F. & Riquelme-Cantal, J.-A. 2008. Neanderthal exploitation of marine mammals in Gibraltar. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 105: 14,319–24.Google Scholar

Stringer, C. B. & Gamble, C. 1993. In Search of the Neanderthals. Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. Thames & Hudson: London.

Stringer, C. B. & Hublin, J.-J. 1999. New age estimates for the Swanscombe hominid, and their significance for human evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 37: 873–7.Google Scholar

Svoboda, J. 1999. Environment and Middle Palaeolithic adaptations in eastern Central Europe, pp. 81–92 in (Roebroeks, W. & Gamble, C., eds.) The Middle Palaeolithic Occupation of Europe. University of Leiden: Leiden.

Tattersall, I. 2007. Homo ergaster and its contemporaries, pp. 1633–53 in (Henke, W., Hardt, T. & Tattersall, I., eds.) Handbook of Paleoanthropology, vol. 3 (1). Springer: Berlin.

Tchernov, E. 1988. The age of ‘Ubeidiya Formation (Jordan Valley, Israel) and the earliest hominids in the Levant. Paléorient 14 (2): 63–5.Google Scholar

Thieme, H. 1997. Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany. Nature 385: 807–10.Google Scholar

Thieme, H. 1999. Altpaläolithische Holzgeräte aus Schöningen, Lkr. Helmstedt. Bedeutsame Funde zur Kulturentwicklung des frühen Menschen. Germania 77: 451–87.Google Scholar

Thieme, H. 2007. Die Schöninger Speere. Mensch und Jagd vor 400000 Jahren. Theiss: Stuttgart.

Thieme, H. & Veil, S. (with contributions by: Meyer, W., Möller, J. & Plisson, H.) 1985. Neue Untersuchungen zum eemzeitlichen Elefanten-Jagdplatz Lehringen, Ldkr. Verden. Die Kunde (Neue Folge) 36: 11–58.Google Scholar

Toepfer, V. 1958. Steingeräte und Palökologie der mittelpaläolithischen Fundstelle Rabutz bei Halle (Saale). Jahresschrift für mitteldeutsche Vorgeschichte 41–2: 140–77.Google Scholar

Toro Moyano, I., de Lumley, H., Barrier, P., Barsky, D., Cauche, D., Celiberti, V., Grégoire, S., Lebègue, F., Mestour, B. & Doncel, M.-H. 2010. Les industries lithiques archaïques de Barranco León et de Fuente Nueva 3. Orce, bassin de Guadix-Baza, Andalousie. CNRS Éditions: Paris.

de la Torre, I., Mora, R., Domínguez-Rodrigo, M., Luque, L. de & Alcalá, L. 2003. The Oldowan industry of Peninj and its bearing on the reconstruction of the technological skills of Lower Pleistocene hominids. Journal of Human Evolution 44: 203–24.Google Scholar

de la Torre, I., Mora, R. & Martínez-Moreno, J. 2008. The early Acheulean in Peninj (Lake Natron, Tanzania). Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 27: 244–64.Google Scholar

Toucanne, S., Zaragosi, S., Bourillet, J. F., Cremer, M., Eynaud, F., Van Vliet Lanoe, B., Penaud, A., Fontanier, C., Turon, J. L., Cortijo, E. & Gibbard, P. L. 2009b. Timing of massive “Fleuve Manche” discharges over the last 350 kyr: insights into the European ice-sheet oscillations and the European drainage network from MIS 10 to 2. Quaternary Science Reviews 28: 1238–56.Google Scholar

Toucanne, S., Zaragosi, S., Bourillet, J. F., Gibbard, P. L., Eynaud, F., Giraudeau, J., Turon, J. L., Cremer, M., Cortijo, E., Martinez, P. & Rossignol, L. 2009a. A 1.2 Ma record of glaciation and fluvial discharge from the West European Atlantic margin. Quaternary Science Reviews 28: 2974–81.Google Scholar

Tryon, C. A. & McBrearty, S. 2002. Tephrostratigraphy and the Acheulian to Middle Stone Age transition in the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution 42: 211–35.Google Scholar

Tuffreau, A. 1992. Middle Palaeolithic settlement in northern France, pp. 59–73 in (Dibble, H. L. & Mellars, P., eds.) The Middle Palaeolithic: Adaptation, Behaviour, and Variability. University of Pennsylvania Museum Monograph 72: Philadelphia.

Tuffreau, A. 1995. Variability of Levallois technology in northern France and neighboring areas, pp. 413–27 in (Dibble, H. L. & Bar-Yosef, O., eds.) The Definition and Interpretation of Levallois Technology. Monographs in World Archaeology 23. Prehistory Press: Madison, WI.

Tuffreau, A. & Antoine, P. 1995. The earliest occupation of Europe: Continental Northwestern Europe, pp. 147–63 in (Roebroeks, W. & van Kolfschoten, T., eds.) The Earliest Occupation of Europe. Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 27: Leiden.

Tuffreau, A. & Lamotte, A. 2010. Oldest Acheulean settlements in northern France. Quaternary International 223–4: 455.Google Scholar

Tuffreau, A. & Roebroeks, W. (eds.) 2002. Le dernier Interglaciaire et les occupations humaines du Paléolithique moyen. Publications du CERP 8: Lille.

Turner, E. 2000. Miesenheim I. Excavations at a Lower Palaeolithic Site in the Central Rhinelend of Germany. Monographien des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 44. Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum: Mainz.

Turner, E. 2004. The carnivore and human occupations of the Wildscheuer Cave, an Upper Pleistocene “des-res” in Hesse, Germany. Revue de Paléobiologie de Genève 23 (2): 897–925.Google Scholar

Turq, A. 1999. Reflections on the Middle Palaeolithic of the Aquitaine Basin, pp. 107–20 in (Roebroeks, W. & Gamble, C., eds.) The Middle Palaeolithic Occupation of Europe. University of Leiden: Leiden.

Tzedakis, P. C., Lawson, I. T., Frogley, M. R., Hewitt, G. M. & Preece, R. C. 2002. Buffered tree population changes in a Quaternary refugium: evolutionary implications. Science 297: 2044–7.Google Scholar

Tzedakis, P. C., Raynaud, D., McMannus, J. F., Berger, A., Brovkin, V. & Kiefer, T. 2009. Interglacial diversity. Nature Geoscience 2: 751–5.Google Scholar

Tzedakis, P. C., Roucoux, K. H., de Abreu, L. & Shackleton, N. J. 2004. The duration of forest stages in Southern Europe and Interglacial climate variability. Science 306: 2231–5.Google Scholar

Valensi, P. 2000. The archaeozoology of Lazaret Cave (Nice, France). International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 10: 357–67.Google Scholar

Valoch, K. 1995. The earliest occupation of Europe: eastern central and southeastern Europe, pp. 67–84 in (Roebroeks, W. & van Kolfschoten, T., eds.) The Earliest Occupation of Europe. Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 27: Leiden.

Van Andel, T., Davies, W. & Weninger, B. 2003. The human presence in Europe during the Last Glacial. Period I: human migrations and the changing climate, pp. 31–56 in (Van Andel, T. & Davies, W., eds.) Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape during the Last Glaciation. McDonald Institute Monographs: Cambridge.

van der Made, J. & Mateos, A. 2010. Longstanding biogeographic patterns and the dispersal of early Homo out of Africa and into Europe. Quaternary International 223–4: 195–200.Google Scholar

Veil, S., Breest, K., Höfle, H.-C., Meyer, H.-H., Plisson, H., Urban-Küttel, B., Wagner, G. A. & Zöller, L. 1994. Ein mittelpaläolithischer Fundplatz aus der Weichsel-Kaltzeit bei Lichtenberg, Ldkr. Lüchow-Dannenberg. Zwischenbericht über die archäologischen und geowissenschaftlichen Untersuchungen 1987–1992. Germania 72: 1–66.Google Scholar

Vekua, A. 1996. Die Wirbeltierfauna des Villafranchium von Dmanisi und ihre biostratigraphische Bedeutung. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 42: 77–180.Google Scholar

Vekua, A., Lordkipanidze, D., Rightmire, G. P., Agustí, J., Ferring, R., Maisuradze, G., Mouskhelishvili, A., Nioradze, M., Ponce de Léon, M., Tappen, M., Tvalcrelidze, M. & Zollikofer, C. 2002. A new skull of early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia. Science 297: 85–9.Google Scholar

Verpoorte, A. 2006. Neanderthal energetics and spatial behaviour. Before Farming 3: 1–6.Google Scholar

Villa, P., Soto, E., Santona, M., Pérez-González, A., Mora, R., Parcerisas, J. & Sesé, C. 2005. New data from Ambrona: closing the hunting versus scavenging debate. Quaternary International 126–8: 223–50.Google Scholar

Vlçek, E., Mania, D. & Mania, U. 2002. Der fossile Mensch von Bilzingsleben. Bilzingsleben VI. Beier und Beran: Weissbach.

Vollbrecht, J. 1997. Untersuchungen zum Altpaläolithikum im Rheinland. Universitätsforschungen zur Prähistorischen Archäologie 38. Habelt: Bonn.

von Berg, A. 2003a. Siedlungsreste aus der Zeit der Neanderthaler im Wannenvulkan bei Ochtendung, Kreis Mayen-Koblenz. Archäologie in Rheinland-Pfalz 2002: 14–17.Google Scholar

von Berg, A. 2003b. Mittelpaläolithische Siedlungsstrukturen in den Kratermulden des Wannenvulkans bei Ochtendung, Kreis Mayen-Koblenz, pp. 51–6 in (Burdukiewicz, J., Fiedler, L., Heinrich, W.-D., Justus, A. & Brühl, E., eds.) ErkenntnisJäger. Kultur und Umwelt des frühen Menschen. (Festschrift Dietrich Mania). Veröffentlichungen des Landesamtes für Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt 57: Halle.

von Berg, A. & Fiedler, L. 1987. Faustkeilfunde des älteren Acheuléen von Winningen/Mosel, Kreis Mayen-Koblenz. Berichte zur Archäologie an Mittelrhein und Mosel 1: 73–84.Google Scholar

von Koenigswald, W. 2003. Mode and causes for Pleistocene turnovers in the mammalian fauna of Central Europe, pp. 305–12 in (Reumer, J. W. F. & Wessels, W., eds.) Distribution and Migration of Tertiary Mammals in Eurasia. A Volume in Honor of Hans de Bruijn. DEINSEA 10. Natuurmuseum: Rotterdam.

Wagner, E. 1983. Das mittelpaläolithikum der Großen Grotte bei Blaubeuren (Alb-Donau-Kreis). Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Baden-Württemberg 16. Konrad Theiss Verlag: Stuttgart.

Wagner, G. A., Krbetschek, M., Degering, D., Bahain, J.-J., Shao, Q., Falguères, C., Voinchet, P., Dolo, J.-M., Garcia, T. & Rightmire, G. P. 2010. Radiometric dating of the type-site for Homo heidelbergensis at Mauer, Germany. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 107: 19,726–30.Google Scholar

Weber, T. & Litt, T. 1991. Der Waldelefantenfund von Gröbern, Kr. Gräfenhainichen. Jagdbefund oder Nekrophagie? Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 21: 17–32.Google Scholar

Wegmann, K. W. 2008. Tectonic Geomorphology above Mediterranean Subduction Zones: Northeastern Apennines of Italy and Crete, Greece. Dissertation, Lehigh University.

Wenban-Smith, F. 2004. Handaxe typology and Lower Palaeolithic cultural development: fircons, cleavers and two giant handaxes from Cuxton, pp. 11–21 in (Pope, M. & Cramp, K., eds.) Lithics 25 (Papers in Honour of R. J. MacRae). Lithic Studies Society: London.

Wenban-Smith, F., Allen, P., Bates, M. R., Parfitt, S. A., Preece, R. C., Stewart, J. R., Turner, C. & Whittaker, J. E. 2006. The Clactonian elephant butchery site at Southfleet Road, Ebbsfleet, UK. Journal of Quaternary Science 21: 471–83.Google Scholar

Wenzel, S. 1998. Die Funde aus dem Travertin von Stuttgart-Untertürkheim und die Archäologie der letzten Warmzeit in Mitteleuropa. Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 52. Habelt: Bonn.

Wenzel, S. 2003. Leben im Wald – die Archäologie der letzten Warmzeit vor 125000 Jahren. Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte 11 (2002): 35–63.Google Scholar

Wenzel, S. 2007. Neanderthal presence and behaviour in Central and Northwestern Europe during MIS 5e, pp. 173–96 in (Sirocko, F., Claussen, M., Sánchez Goñi, M. F. & Litt, T., eds.) The Climate of Past Interglacials. Developments in Quaternary Science 7. Elsevier: Amsterdam.

White, M. J. 2006. Axeing cleavers: reflections on broad-tipped large cutting tools in the British earlier Paleolithic, pp. 365–86 in (Goren-Inbar, N. & Sharon, G., eds.) Axe Age. Acheulian Toolmaking from Quarry to Discard. Approaches to Anthropological Archaeology. Equinox: London.

White, M. J. & Ashton, N. 2003. Lower Palaeolithic core technology and the origins of the Levallois method in Northwestern Europe. Current Anthropology 44: 598–609.Google Scholar

White, M. J. & Schreve, D. C. 2000. Island Britain – Peninsula Britain: palaeogeography, colonisation, and the Lower Palaeolithic settlement of the British Isles. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 66: 1–28.Google Scholar

White, R. 2001. Personal ornaments from the Grotte du Renne at Arcy-sur-Cure. Atenea Review 2 (4): 41–6.Google Scholar

Wilson, R. C. L., Drury, S. A. & Chapman, J. L. 2000. The Great Ice Age: Climate Change and Life. Routledge: London and New York.

Wright, A. K. & Flower, B. P. 2002. Surface and deep ocean circulation in the Subpolar North Atlantic during the Mid-Pleistocene revolution. Paleoceanography 17 (4): 1–16.Google Scholar

Zilhão, J. 2007. The emergence of ornaments and art: an archaeological perspective on the origins of “Behavioral Modernity”. Journal of Archaeological Research 15: 1–54.Google Scholar

Book contents

3.17 - Early Palaeolithic Europe

Summary

Access options

References

Save book to Kindle

Save book to Dropbox

Save book to Google Drive