Book contents
- Frontmatter
- 1 The palaeo-ecology of the African continent: the physical environment of Africa from earliest geological to Later Stone Age times
- 2 Origins and evolution of African Hominidae
- 3 The earliest archaeological traces
- 4 The cultures of the Middle Palaeolithic/Middle Stone Age
- 5 The Late Palaeolithic and Epi-Palaeolithic of northern Africa
- 6 The Later Stone Age in sub-Saharan Africa
- 7 The rise of civilization in Egypt
- 8 Beginnings of pastoralism and cultivation in north-west Africa and the Sahara: origins of the Berbers
- 9 The origins of indigenous African agriculture
- 10 Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period in Egypt
- 11 Early food production in sub-Saharan Africa
- 12 Egypt, 1552–664 BC
- Bibliographical essays
- Bibliography
- Index
- Fig. 3.5 The distribution of sites known or believed to be older than 1.5 million years (i.e. Oldowan). (Modified from J. D. Clark 1967.)
- Fig. 3.6 The distribution of sites known or believed to be between 1.5 and 0.7 million years (i.e. Early Acheulian and Developed Oldowan).">
- Fig. 3.7 The location of Earlier Stone Age and Lower Palaeolithic sites thought to be between 0.7 and 0.1 million years old (i.e. Acheulian plus Developed Oldowan/Hope Fountain).
- Fig. 3.16 The ‘Zinjanthropus’ site at FLK, Bed I, Olduvai Gorge. A plan showing the distribution of an old ground–surface which was uncovered by excavation. A dense patch of discarded artifacts and introduced stones (manuports) coincides with a dense patch of broken–up animal bones. (After M. D. Leakey 1971.)
- Plate Section
- Plate Section
- Plate Section
- Plate Section">
- Plate Section
- Plate Section
- Plate Section
- References
1 - The palaeo-ecology of the African continent: the physical environment of Africa from earliest geological to Later Stone Age times
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 March 2008
Edited by
Book contents
- Frontmatter
- 1 The palaeo-ecology of the African continent: the physical environment of Africa from earliest geological to Later Stone Age times
- 2 Origins and evolution of African Hominidae
- 3 The earliest archaeological traces
- 4 The cultures of the Middle Palaeolithic/Middle Stone Age
- 5 The Late Palaeolithic and Epi-Palaeolithic of northern Africa
- 6 The Later Stone Age in sub-Saharan Africa
- 7 The rise of civilization in Egypt
- 8 Beginnings of pastoralism and cultivation in north-west Africa and the Sahara: origins of the Berbers
- 9 The origins of indigenous African agriculture
- 10 Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period in Egypt
- 11 Early food production in sub-Saharan Africa
- 12 Egypt, 1552–664 BC
- Bibliographical essays
- Bibliography
- Index
- Fig. 3.5 The distribution of sites known or believed to be older than 1.5 million years (i.e. Oldowan). (Modified from J. D. Clark 1967.)
- Fig. 3.6 The distribution of sites known or believed to be between 1.5 and 0.7 million years (i.e. Early Acheulian and Developed Oldowan).">
- Fig. 3.7 The location of Earlier Stone Age and Lower Palaeolithic sites thought to be between 0.7 and 0.1 million years old (i.e. Acheulian plus Developed Oldowan/Hope Fountain).
- Fig. 3.16 The ‘Zinjanthropus’ site at FLK, Bed I, Olduvai Gorge. A plan showing the distribution of an old ground–surface which was uncovered by excavation. A dense patch of discarded artifacts and introduced stones (manuports) coincides with a dense patch of broken–up animal bones. (After M. D. Leakey 1971.)
- Plate Section
- Plate Section
- Plate Section
- Plate Section">
- Plate Section
- Plate Section
- Plate Section
- References
Summary
THE EVOLUTION OF THE CONTINENT
Geological structure and Precambrian history
The continent of Africa, second only to Asia in size, has an unusual combination of features and environments, including many extreme contrasts. It lies astride the Equator but, unlike South America, has northern and southern limits at almost identical latitudes (37°N and 35°S). However, this symmetry does not apply to area, for the northern portion is twice as large as the southern. Much of the interior of Africa, especially in the south, is an elevated plateau, capped in the east by the great piles of volcanic material that form the highlands of Ethiopia and East Africa. Cutting through these highlands are the trenches of the Great Rift Valley, occupied in part by important lakes, both deep and shallow. Volcanic cones form spectacular mountains with peaks rising almost to 6000 m above sea level and snow-clad despite their equatorial situation. In contrast there are areas in Egypt and Ethiopia that are as much as 120 m below sea level – Afar in the Rift system and the wind-scooped Qattara and other depressions in Egypt. In addition to the volcanic cones, there are other mountainous areas, but they are largely uplifted erosional remnants; true mountain chains are confined to the northern extremity (Atlas Mountains) and to the southernmost margin (Cape Ranges). The largest dry, hot desert in the world, the Sahara, stretches from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, forming a significant continent-wide barrier between the narrow Mediterranean littoral belt and the rest of the continent, often conveniently termed ‘sub-Saharan Africa’.
Keywords
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- The Cambridge History of Africa , pp. 1 - 69Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 1982
References
and (1975). Palaeoenvironments in the East African Miocene. In (ed.), Approaches to primate palaeobiology, 5, 62–103. Basel.Google Scholar
and (1975). Accuracy of dates beyond the C14 dating limit using the aspartic acid racemization technique. Nature, Lond. 255, 218–19.Google Scholar
(1911). The origin of the Moon. (Detroit Free Press 23 April 1911.)
(ed.) (1966–80). Palaeoecology of Africa and of the surrounding Islands and Antarctica, 12 vols. Capetown. (Vols. II and III, 1967; vol. VI, 1972.)
and (1973). Quaternary environmental changes in southern Africa. Soil Sci. 116, 236–48Google Scholar
and (1972). On a new radiocarbon chronology for Africa south of the equator, Part 2. Afr. Stud. 31, 155–82.Google Scholar
(1976). Fossil assemblages in relation to sedimentary environments in the East Rudolf succession. In , et al. (eds.), Earliest man and environments in the Lake Rudolf basin, 383–401. Chicago.Google Scholar
(1978). The habitat of early African hominids: taphonomic and micro-stratigraphic evidence. In (ed.), Early hominids of Africa, 165–90. London.Google Scholar
(1961). Le Paléolithique inférieur du Maroc atlantique. Publs Serv. Antiquités Maroc 17.Google Scholar
(1970). Index-cards on the marine and continental cycles of the Moroccan Quaternary. Quaternaria 13, 1–76.Google Scholar
(ed.) (1978). Geological Background to fossil man: Recent research in the Gregory Rift Valley, East Africa. Edinburgh and Toronto.
and (eds.) (1972). Calibration of hominoid evolution. Edinburgh and Toronto.
(1978). Geochronological framework for African Plio-Pleistocene hominidae: as Cerberus sees it. In (ed.), Early hominids of Africa, 255–66. London.Google Scholar
and (1967) (eds.). Background to evolution in Africa. Chicago.
, and (1969). New potassium—argon age determinations relevant to the Miocene fossil mammal sequence in East Africa. Am. J. Sci. 267, 669–99Google Scholar
(ed.) (1971). The origins of Homo sapiens/Origine de l'homme moderne. UNESCO Ecology and Conservation Series 3. Paris.
and (1973). Stratigraphical relationships of the Plio-Pleistocene deposits, East Rudolf, Kenya. Nature, Lond. 242, 391–3.Google Scholar
(1967). Procedures and some results in the study of Quaternary cave fillings. In and (eds.), Background to evolution in Africa, 285–301. Chicago.Google Scholar
(1976). A re-interpretation of the Swartkrans site and its remains. S. Afr. J. Sci. 72, 141–6.Google Scholar
(1950). Finding the Missing Link. London.
and (1976). Preliminary magneto-stratigraphy of the Lower Omo Valley, Ethiopia. In et al. (eds.), Earliest man and environments in the Lake Rudolf basin, 64–78. Chicago.Google Scholar
(1971). Environment and archaeology: an ecological approach to prehistory, 2nd edn. Chicago.
and (1968). Desert and river in Nubia: geomorphology and prehistoric environments at the Aswan reservoir. Madison.
and (eds.) (1975). After the australopithecines: stratigraphy, ecology and culture change in the Middle Pleistocene. The Hague.
(1971a). Environment and archaeology, 2nd edn. Chicago.
(1971b). The Lower Omo Basin: geology, fauna and hominids of the Plio-Pleistocene formations. Naturwissenschaften 58, 7–16.Google Scholar
(1971c). Recent history of an Ethiopian Delta: the Omo Delta and the level of Lake Rudolf. Res. Pap. Dep. Geogr. Univ. Chicago 136, 1–184.Google Scholar
(1973a). A provisional interpretation of the sedimentary sequence from Montagu Cave (Cape Province), South Africa. In (ed.), Montagu Cave, 89–92. Berkeley.Google Scholar
(1973b). Spring sediments from the Acheulian site of Amanzi (Uitenhage District, South Africa). Quaternaria 16, 299–320.Google Scholar
(1973c). Re-evaluation of the geology of the Elandsfontein (Hopefield) site, south-western Cape, South Africa. S. Afr. J. Sci. 69, 234–8.Google Scholar
(1973d). Past climates of the Tibesti Mountains, central Sahara. Geogrl. Rev. 63, 395–7.Google Scholar
(1973f). Geology of Nelson Bay Cave, Robberg, South Africa. S. Afr. Archaeol. Bull. 28, 97–110.Google Scholar
(1974a). Geological and ecological perspectives on the Middle Pleistocene. Quaternary Res. 4, 136–48.Google Scholar
(1974b). Geo-archaeological interpretation of two Acheulian calc-pan sites: Doomlaagte and Rooidam (Kimberley, South Africa). J. Archaeol. Sci. I, 1–25.Google Scholar
(1974c). Palaeo-ecology of South African australopithecines: Taung re-visited. Curr. Anthrop. 15, 367–82 and 413–16.Google Scholar
(1975a). Pleistocene littoral—sedimentary cycles of the Mediterranean Basin: a Mallorquin view. In and (eds.), After the australopithecines 25–71. The Hague.Google Scholar
(1975b). Patterns of environmental change in the Near East during late Pleistocene and early Holocene times. In and (eds.), Problems in prehistory: North Africa and the Levant, 389–410. Dallas.Google Scholar
(1976b). The Mursi, Nkalabong and Kibish formations, Lower Omo Basin (Ethiopia). In et al. (eds.), Earliest man and environments in the Lake Rudolf basin, 12–23. Chicago.Google Scholar
(1976c). Early hydraulic civilization in Egypt: a study in cultural ecology. Chicago.
(1976d). Pleistocene climates. In (ed.), Ecology of the Pleistocene (Geoscience and Man, vol. XIII), 27–44.Google Scholar
(1978a). Sediment stratigraphy of the Middle Stone Age sequence at Klasies River Mouth, Tsitsikama Coast, South Africa. S. Afr. archaeol. Bull. 33, 141–51.Google Scholar
(1978c) Geo-ecological perspectives on early hominid evolution. In (ed.), Early hominids of Africa, 191–217. London.Google Scholar
(1979). Pleistocene history of the Nile Valley in Egypt and Lower Nubia. In and (eds.), The Sahara and the Nile, 253–80. Rotterdam.Google Scholar
, and (1978). Lithostratigraphy of Border Cave, Kwazulu, South Africa: A Middle Stone Age sequence beginning c. 195,000 B. P. J. archaeol. Sci. 5, 317–41.Google Scholar
, and (1969). Horizontal sediments of the lower Omo Valley: the Kibish Formation. Quaternaria II, 31–46.Google Scholar
, and (1974). The geology, archaeology, and fossil mammals of the Cornelia Beds, O.F.S. Nat. Mus. Mem. 9, Bloemfontein.
, , and . (1973b). Paleo-hydrology of late Pleistocene lakes in the Alexandersfontein Pan, Kimberley, South Africa. Nature, Lond. 243, 328–30.Google Scholar
, , and (1979). Dating and contextual analysis of rock engravings in Southern Africa. Science, N. Y. 203, 1201–4.Google Scholar
and (1972). Late Pleistocene stratigraphy of the Kom Ombo Plain, Upper Egypt: comparison with other recent studies near Esna-Edfu. Bull. Liais. Ass. Sénégal. Etud. Quaternaire 35–6, 5–14.Google Scholar
and (1972). Late Cenozoic evolution of the Cape coast between Knysna and Cape St. Francis, South Africa. Quaternary Res. 2, 143–69.Google Scholar
, , and (1972). Radiocarbon dating of East African lake levels. Science, N. Y. 175, 1069–76.Google Scholar
, , and (1973a). Alluvial terraces of the Lower Vaal Basin, South Africa: a re-appraisal and re-investigation. J. Geol. 81, 341–62.Google Scholar
, , and (1978). Late Cenozoic paleoclimates of the Gaap Escarpment, Kalahari margin, South Africa. Quaternary Res. 10, 310–39.Google Scholar
(1975). Le site archéologique de la Kamoa (Shaba, Zaïre). Kon. Museum voor Midden-Afrika 84, Tervuren.
(1964). Etude stratigraphique des formations quaternaires du Sahara nord-occidental. , Paris.
and (1971). Présence éventuelle d'un abri oldowayen dans le gisement de Melka-Kontouré (Ethiopie). C. hebd. Séanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 273-D, 623–5.Google Scholar
(1968). Early and Middle Paleolithic sites near Arkin, Sudan. In (ed.), The prehistory of Nubia, 110–47. Dallas.Google Scholar
(1950). The Stone Age cultures of Northern Rhodesia. S. Afr. Archaeol. Soc. Cape Town.Google Scholar
(1959). Further excavations at Broken Hill, Northern Rhodesia. Jl. R. anthrop. Inst. 89, 201–32.Google Scholar
(1963). Prehistoric cultures of Northeast Angola and their significance in tropical Africa, 2 vols. Publções cult. Co. Diam. Angola 62.Google Scholar
(1967). Atlas of African prehistory. Chicago.
(1969). The Kalambo Falls prehistoric site, vol. I. Cambridge.
(1975a). Stone Age man at the Victoria Falls. In (ed.), Mosi-oa-Tunya: a Handbook to the Victoria Falls region, 34–43. London.Google Scholar
(1975b). A comparison of the late Acheulian industries of Africa and the Middle East. In and (eds.), After the australopithecines, 605–60. The Hague.Google Scholar
(1966). Tectono-metallogenic units and metallogenic provinces of Africa. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. I, 421–34.Google Scholar
and (eds.) (1970). African magnetism and tectonics. Edinburgh.
(1967). Pollen analytical studies in East and Southern Africa. In (ed.), Palaeoecology of Africa, vol. III, 1–146. Cape Town.Google Scholar
(1967). The later Acheulian and Sangoan of Southern Uganda. In and (eds.), Background to evolution in Africa, 481–526. Chicago.Google Scholar
(1975). Leakey's luck. New York.
(1969). L'évolution continentale posthercynienne du Sahara algérien. Recherches sur les zones arides, , Paris.Google Scholar
(1958). Observations relating to Quaternary environments in East and Southern Africa. Trans. geol. Soc. S. Afr. 61, (Annex.), 1–73.Google Scholar
(1963). Pleistocene mammal faunas of Africa with particular reference to southern Africa. In and (eds.), African ecology and human evolution, 65–116. Chicago.Google Scholar
(1972). The fossil mammal fauna of Africa. In , and (eds.), Evolution, mammals and southern continents, 89–139. Albany, New York.Google Scholar
(1978). Faunal evidence for the biotic setting of early African hominids. In (ed.), Early hominids of Africa, 267–84. London.Google Scholar
and (1972). Plio-Pleistocene stratigraphy in East Africa in relation to proboscidean and suid evolution. In and (eds.), Calibration of hominoid evolution, 303–30. Edinburgh and Toronto.Google Scholar
, , and (eds.) (1976). Earliest man and environments in the Lake Rudolph basin: stratigraphy, palaeoecology and evolution. (Prehistoric archaeology and ecology 2) Chicago.
and (1973). The origin and affinities of African mammal faunas. In (ed.), Organisms and continents through time. Special Papers in Palaeontology 12, 121–35. Palaeontological Association, London.Google Scholar
(1970). Review and interpretation of palaeomagnetic data from the Gondwanic continents. 2nd Gondwana Symposium, South Africa, July to August 1970, Proceedings and Papers, 52–72. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (Pretoria), Pretoria.Google Scholar
(1974). The dentitions and relationships of the Southern African Triassic mammals, Erythrotherium parringtoni and Megazostrodon rudnerae. Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Geology) 24, 7, 399–437.Google Scholar
and (1975). A Bibliography of the fossil mammals of Africa 1950–1972. Department of Geological and Geophysical Sciences, Princeton University.
, , and (1975). Age of KBS tuff in Koobi Fora Formation, East Rudolf, Kenya. Nature, Lond. 258, 395–8.Google Scholar
(1925). Australopithecus africanus, the man-ape of South Africa. Nature, Lond. 115, 195–9.Google Scholar
(1959). Adventures with the Missing Link. New York.
and (1970). Reconstruction of Pangaea; breakup and dispersion of continents, Permian to present. J. geophys. Res. 75, 4939–56.Google Scholar
(1964). Glaciations of Mt. Kilimanjaro, northeast Tanganyika. Bull. geol. Soc. Am. 75, 1–16.Google Scholar
(1926). The geology of South Africa. Edinburgh.
(1937). Our wandering continents. Edinburgh.
and (1965). The potassium-argon dating of late Cenozoic rocks in East Africa and Italy. Curr. Anthrop. 6, 343–64.Google Scholar
(1963). An atlas of African history, 1st edn. London.
and (1970). Radiometric age determinations of Lake Rudolf artefact sites. Nature, Lond. 226, 226–8.Google Scholar
(1959). Pleistocene climates in eastern and southern Africa. Bull. geol. Soc. Am. 70, 343–74.Google Scholar
and (1972). Influence of continental positions on early Teritary climates. Nature, Lond. 240, 97–100.Google Scholar
(1975). Acheulian sites and stratigraphy in Iberia and the Maghreb. In and (eds.), After the australopithecines, 661–744. The Hague.Google Scholar
(1950). Géologie de l' Afrique, 1st edn. Paris.
(1960). Géologie de l' Afrique, 2nd edn. Paris.
(1963). Geology of Africa. Translated by and . Edinburgh.
(1975). L'évolution des lacs de l' Afar central du Plio-Pléistocène à l' Actuel, 3 vols. Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique (Paris), Paris.
(1921). The rift valleys and geology of East Africa. London.
and (1968). Quaternary landforms and climate on the south side of the Sahara. Geogrl J. 134, 194–208.Google Scholar
(Lord) (1938). An African survey, 1st edn. Oxford.
(1957). An African survey, 2nd edn. Oxford.
and (1971). Environment and activity patterning at Isimila Korongo, Iringa District, Tanzania: a preliminary report. Am. Anthrop. 73, 1201–11.Google Scholar
(1971). Geologic background of Beds I and II: stratigraphic summary. In (ed.), Olduvai Gorge, vol. III: Excavations in Beds I and II, 1960–1963, 9–18. Cambridge.Google Scholar
(1973). Lithofacies and environments of Bed I, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Quaternary Res. 3, 541–60.Google Scholar
(1976). Geology of the Olduvai Gorge. Berkeley.
(1978). Acheulian settlement along the Lower Vaal River, South Africa. J. archaeol. Sci. 5, 39–60.Google Scholar
(1979). Rivers of diamonds: an alluvial history of the Lower Vaal basin. Res. Pap. Dep. Geogr. Univ. Chicago 186.Google Scholar
and (1977). Paleosols of the southern Cape Coast, South Africa. Geogrl. Rev. 67, 430–45.Google Scholar
(1965). Principles of physical geology. London.
and (1954). An annotated bibliography of the fossil mammals of Africa (1742–1950). Fossil Mammals Afr. 8, Br. Mus. Nat. Hist. London.Google Scholar
and (eds.) (1963). African ecology and human evolution. Chicago.
and (eds.) (1963). African ecology and human evolution. New York.
(1977). Olorgesailie: the archaeology of a Middle Pleistocene lake basin in Kenya. (Prehistoric archeology and ecology 4.) Chicago.
(1972a). Comparative studies of Pleistocene site locations in East Africa. In , and , (eds.), Man, settlement and urbanism, 165–76. Morristown, N. J. and London.Google Scholar
(1972b). Chronology and the tempo of cultural change during the Pleistocene. In and (eds.), Calibration of hominoid evolution, pp. 381–430. Edinburgh and Toronto.Google Scholar
(1975). Middle Pleistocene stratigraphy and cultural patterns in East Africa. In and (eds.), After the australopithecines, 495–542. The Hague.Google Scholar
(1977). Olorgesailie: archaeological studies of a Middle Pleistocene lake basin in Kenya (Prehistoric Archeology and Ecology 4). Chicago.
and (1974). Age of early Acheulian industries from the Peninj Group, Tanzania. Nature, Lond. 249, 624–7.Google Scholar
, and (1976). Archeological evidence from the Koobi Fora formation. In et al. (eds.), Earliest man and environments in the Lake Rudolf basin Vol. II, 533–51. Chicago.Google Scholar
(ed.) (1961). Climatological atlas of Africa. Commission for Technical Co-operation in Africa South of the Sahara, Lagos.
(1975). The mammalian faunas and hominid fossils of the middle Pleistocene of the Maghreb. In and (eds.), After the australopithecines, 399–418. The Hague.Google Scholar
, and (1978). A new species of the genus Australopithecus (Primates: Hominidae) from the Pliocene of Eastern Africa. Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist., Kirtlandia 28, 1–14.Google Scholar
(ed.) (1978). Early hominids of Africa. London.
(1959). Vegetation map of Africa, with explanatory notes. Oxford.
(1967). The morphology of the Earth, 2nd edn. New York, Edinburgh and London.
(1974). Environment and subsistence of prehistoric man in the southern Cape Province, South Africa. World Archaeol. 5, 249–84.Google Scholar
(1980). The interpretation of mammalian faunas from Stone Age archaeological sites, with special reference to sites in the southern Cape Province, South Africa. In and (eds.), Fossils in the making: Vertebrate Taphonomy and Paleoecology, 223–46. Chicago.Google Scholar
(1973). Excavations at Site JK2, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, 1961–62: the geological setting. Quaternaria 17, 145–208.Google Scholar
(1973). Comparison between Ice Age and present general circulations. Nature, Lond. 245, 129–33.Google Scholar
(1925). Geologie der Erde: Geologie Afrikas, vol. I. Berlin.
(1928). Geologie der Erde: Geologie Afrikas, vol. II. Berlin.
(1951). Olduvai Gorge. Cambridge.
and (1952). Proceedings of the Pan- African Congress on Prehistory 1947. Oxford and New York.
, and , (1964). A new species of the genus Homo from Olduvai Gorge. Nature, Lond. 202, 7–9.Google Scholar
(1971). Olduvai Gorge, vol. III: Excavations in Beds I and II, 1960–1963. Cambridge.
(1975). Cultural patterns in the Olduvai sequence. In and (eds.), After the australopithecines, 477–94. The Hague.Google Scholar
, , and (1969). An Acheulian industry with prepared core technique and the discovery of a contemporary hominid mandible at Lake Baringo, Kenya. Proc. prehist. Soc. 35, 48–76.Google Scholar
(1972). Vertebrate faunas and chronology of hominid-bearing sediments east of Lake Rudolf, Kenya. Nature, Lond. 239, 379–85.Google Scholar
(1973). Origin and evolution of the Elephantidae. Trans. Am. phil. Soc. n.s. 63, pt. 3.Google Scholar
and (eds.) (1978). Evolution of African Mammals. Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
(1977). Palaeoclimates of Central Sahara during the early Holocene. Nature, Lond. 269, 573–7.Google Scholar
(1967). The Haua Fteah (Cyrenaica) and the Stone Age of the south east Mediterranean. Cambridge.
, and (1967). Late Tertiary and Quaternary sediments of the Kenya Rift valley. In and (eds.), Background to evolution in Africa, 191–228. Chicago.Google Scholar
(1967). Die eiszeitliche und die gegenwärtige Verglatscherung im Mittelmeerraum. Geographica helv. 22, 105–228.Google Scholar
and (1941). La place du Paléolithique ancien dans le Quaternaire marocain. Coll. Hesperis 8. Institut des Hautes Etudes marocaines, Rabat.
, , and (1971). Evidence in Indian Ocean Cores of late Pleistocene changes in oceanic and atmospheric circulation. Geol. För. Stockh. Förh. 93, 51–84.Google Scholar
(1975). Stratigraphic, geomorphological and paleo environmental studies of the Makapansgat Limeworks and Sterkfontein hominid sites. Paper, S. Afr. Quaternary Assoc. Cape Town.
(1954). Travertines and cave deposits of the Kaap escarpment of South africa, and the type locality of Australopithecus africanus Dart. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 65, 671–706.Google Scholar
(1969). Three thousand million years of plant life in Africa. Geol. Soc. S. Afr. 72, (Annex).Google Scholar
Proceedings of the Pan-African Congress on Prehistory Actes du congrès panafricain de préhistoire (et de l'étude du Quaternaire) Actas del congreso panafricano de prehistoria y de estudio del Cuaternario I. , 1947: ed. and . Oxford and New York, 1952.
Proceedings of the Pan-African Congress on Prehistory Actes du congrès panafricain de préhistoire (et de l'étude du Quaternaire) Actas del congreso panafricano de prehistoria y de estudio del Cuaternario II. , 1952: ed. . Paris, 1955.
Proceedings of the Pan-African Congress on Prehistory Actes du congrès panafricain de préhistoire (et de l'étude du Quaternaire) Actas del congreso panafricano de prehistoria y de estudio del Cuaternario III. , 1955: ed. and . London, 1957.
Proceedings of the Pan-African Congress on Prehistory Actes du congrès panafricain de préhistoire (et de l'étude du Quaternaire) Actas del congreso panafricano de prehistoria y de estudio del Cuaternario IV. , 1959: ed. and . Tervuren, 1962.
Proceedings of the Pan-African Congress on Prehistory Actes du congrès panafricain de préhistoire (et de l'étude du Quaternaire) Actas del congreso panafricano de prehistoria y de estudio del Cuaternario V. , 1965: ed. , 2 vols. Tenerife, 1966.
Proceedings of the Pan-African Congress on Prehistory Actes du congrès panafricain de préhistoire (et de l'étude du Quaternaire) Actas del congreso panafricano de prehistoria y de estudio del Cuaternario VI. , 1967: ed. . Chambéry, 1972.
Proceedings of the Pan-African Congress on Prehistory Actes du congrès panafricain de préhistoire (et de l'étude du Quaternaire) Actas del congreso panafricano de prehistoria y de estudio del Cuaternario VII. , 1971: eds. , and . Addis Ababa, 1976
(1967). Le massif de l' Atakor et ses bordures (Sahara Central). Recherches sur les zones arides, Centre Nationale de Recherche Scientifique (Paris), Paris.
(1969). Essai de datation absolue d'un biface-hachereau paléolithique de l'Afar (Ethiopie). Anthropologie, Paris 73, 503–24.Google Scholar
(1934). Paleolithic man and the Nile Valley in Upper and Middle Egypt. Publs orient. Inst. Univ. Chicago 18, 1–131.Google Scholar
and (1933). Paleolithic man and the Nile Valley in Nubia and Upper Egypt. Publs. orient. Inst. Chicago 17, 1–92.Google Scholar
(1973). Séquences continentales et variations climatiques: évolution du bassin du Tchad au Cénozoique supérieur. Thesis University of Paris. ORSTROM, Paris.
, and (1969). Chronologie du Quaternaire récent des basses régions du Tchad. C. r. hebd. Séanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 269–D, 1603–6.Google Scholar
, and (1974). Magnetostratigraphy of the Shungura Formation, southwestern Ethiopia: fine structure of the lower matuyama polarity epoch. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 23, 249–60.Google Scholar
(1858). La création et ses mystères dévoilés. Paris.
, and (1937). The geology and archaeology of the Vaal river Basin. Mem. geol. Surv. Un. S. Afr. 35.
and (1967). Th230U234 dates of late Pleistocene marine fossils from the Mediterranean and Moroccan littorals. Prog. Oceanogr. 4, 293–305.Google Scholar
(1885–1901). Das Antlitz der Erde. Vienna. (Translated by as The face of the Earth, 5 vols. 1904, 1906, 1908, 1909, 1924. Oxford.)Google Scholar
(1979). Dating fossil bone from Cornelia, N. E. Orange Free State, South Africa. J. archaeol. Sci. 6.Google Scholar
and (1979). Uranium-series dating of lacustrine limestones from pan deposits with Final Acheulian assemblage at Rooidam, Kimberley District, South Africa. Quaternary Res. II, 257–60.Google Scholar
, , and (1972). Dépôts sédimentaires et faunes du Plio-Pléistocène de la basse vallée de l'Awash (Afar Central, Ethiopie). C. r. hebd. Séanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 275–D, 819–22.Google Scholar
(1910). Bearing of the Tertiary mountain belts on the origin of the Earth's plan. Bull. geol. Soc. Am. 21, 179–226.Google Scholar
(1965). The climate of Africa. Oxford.
and (1969). A history of cartography; 2500 years of maps and mapmakers. London.
(1963). A review of the natural resources of the African continent. UNESCO, Paris.
(1964). Geological map of Africa (I: 5,000,000). UNESCO, Paris.
(1968a). International tectonic map of Africa (I: 5,000,000). UNESCO, Paris.
(1968b). Mineral map of Africa (I: 10,000,000). UNESCO, Paris.
(1970). Survey of the scientific and technical potential of the countries of Africa. UNESCO, Paris.
(1971). Tectonics of Africa. UNESCO, Paris.
(1975). Pollen analyses in the Sahara. In and (eds.), Problems in prehistory: North Africa and the Levant, 45–63, Dallas.Google Scholar
(1975). Some evidence of chronology and palaeoecology of Sterk-fontein, Swartkrans and Kromdraai from the fossil Bovidae. Nature, Lond. 254, 301–4.Google Scholar
(1912). Die entstehung der Kontinente. Petermanns geogr. Mitt. 58, 185–95, 253–6, 305–9.Google Scholar
(1915). Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane. Brunswick, Germany.
and (eds.) (1975). Problems in prehistory: North Africa and the Levant. (Southern Methodist University Contributions in Anthropology 13.) Dallas.
, , , , , , and (1975). Dates for the Middle Stone Age of East Africa. Science, N.Y. 187, 740–2.Google Scholar
, and (1974). Simulation of the atmospheric circulation using the NCAR global circulation model with Ice Age boundary conditions. J. appl. Meteorol. 13, 305–17.Google Scholar
(1938). Science in Africa. Oxford.
- 2
- Cited by