Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-5g6vh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T19:42:28.469Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

24 - Culture and Prosociality

from Part III - Development of Prosociality in Context

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 May 2023

By
Tara Callaghan  and
John Corbit
Edited by
Tina Malti  and
Maayan Davidov
Tina Malti
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Maayan Davidov
Affiliation:
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Get access

Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the similarities and differences in the development of prosociality across cultural contexts and examines the role of social cognitive and motivational factors in shaping cultural diversity. We focus on helping and sharing, examined most extensively across cultures. Low-cost helping and sharing show similar developmental trajectories and levels across cultures. Development of costly helping diverges across cultures in the second year. Costly sharing diverges around middle childhood, coinciding with children’s adherence to cooperative norms of their society. Social cognitive foundations of prosociality develop along similar trajectories, suggesting that diversity in costly prosocial behaviors is best explained by motivational processes. New research suggests that collaboration influences motivational processes, producing similar levels of costly prosociality across diverse societies. To identify the psychological and sociocultural mechanisms underlying human development, it is critical to merge deep understanding of the everyday lives of children with theoretically guided experiments.

Keywords

culturecooperationprosocial behaviorhelpingsharingfairnesscollaboration
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Prosociality
Development, Mechanisms, Promotion
 , pp. 477 - 500
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aime, H., Broesch, T., Aknin, L. B., & Warneken, F. (2017). Evidence for proactive and reactive helping in two- to five-year-olds from a small-scale society. PLoS ONE, 12(11): e0187787.Google Scholar
Aknin, L., Barrington-Leigh, C., Dunn, E., Helliwell, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C., & Norton, M. (2010). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. doi:10.3386/w16415CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aknin, L. B., Broesch, T., Hamlin, J. K., & Van de Vondervoort, J. W. (2015). Prosocial behavior leads to happiness in a small-scale rural society. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(4), 788–795. doi:10.1037/xge0000082CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. PLoS ONE, 7(6), e39211. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039211CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumard, N., Mascaro, O., & Chevallier, C. (2012). Preschoolers are able to take merit into account when distributing goods. Developmental Psychology, 48, 492–498.Google Scholar
Benenson, J. F., Pascoe, J., & Radmore, N. (2007). Children’s altruistic behavior in the dictator game. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28(3), 168–175.Google Scholar
Blake, P. R., Corbit, J., Callaghan, T. C., & Warneken, F. (2016). Give as I give: Adult influence on children’s giving in two cultures. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 152, 149–160.Google Scholar
Blake, P. R., & McAuliffe, K. (2011). “I had so much it didn’t seem fair”: Eight-year-olds reject two forms of inequity. Cognition, 120(2), 215–224. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.04.006Google Scholar
Blake, P. R., McAuliffe, K., Corbit, J., Callaghan, T. C., Barry, O., Bowie, A., Kleutsch, K. L., Kramer, K. L., Ross, E., Vongsachang, R., Wrangham, R., & Warneken, F. (2015). The ontogeny of fairness in seven societies. Nature, 528, 258–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blake, P. R., McAuliffe, K., & Warneken, F. (2014). The developmental origins of fairness: The knowledge–behavior gap. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(11), 559–561. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2014.08.003Google Scholar
Blake, P. R., & Rand, D. G. (2010). Currency value moderates equity preference among young children. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31(3), 210–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bloom, P. (2013). Just babies: The origins of good and evil. Broadway Books.Google Scholar
Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. (1989). The evolution of indirect reciprocity. Social Networks, 11, 213–236.Google Scholar
Broesch, T., Rochat, P., Olah, K., Broesch, J., & Henrich, J., 2016. Similarities and differences in maternal responsiveness in three societies: Evidence from Fiji, Kenya, and the United States. Child Development 87, 700–711. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12501Google Scholar
Brownell, C. A., Iesue, S. S., Nichols, S. R., & Svetlova, M. (2013). Mine or yours? Development of sharing in toddlers in relation to ownership understanding. Child Development, 84(3), 906–920. http://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12009Google Scholar
Brownell, C. A., Svetlova, M., & Nichols, S. (2009). To share or not to share: When do toddlers respond to another’s needs? Infancy, 14(1), 117–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/15250000802569868Google Scholar
Callaghan, T., & Corbit, J. (2018). Early prosocial development across cultures. Current Opinion in Psychology, 20, 1–5.Google Scholar
Callaghan, T., Moll, H., Rakoczy, H., Warneken, F., Liszkowski, U., Behne, T., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Early social cognition in three cultural contexts. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 76(2). http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.2011.00603.xGoogle Scholar
Callaghan, T. C. & Rankin, M. (2003). Emergence of graphic symbol functioning and the question of domain specificity: A longitudinal training study. Child Development, 73, 359–376.Google Scholar
Callaghan, T., Rochat, P., Lillard, A., Claux, M. L., Odden, H., Itakura, S., Tapanya, S., & Singh, S. (2005). Synchrony in the onset of mental-state reasoning: Evidence from five cultures. Psychological Science 16, 378–384. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01544.xGoogle Scholar
Chernyak, N., Harvey, T., Tarullo, A. R., Rockers, P. C., & Blake, P. R. (2018). Varieties of young children’s prosocial behavior in Zambia: The role of cognitive ability, wealth, and inequality beliefs. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02209Google Scholar
Chudek, M., & Henrich, J. (2011). Culture–gene coevolution, norm-psychology and the emergence of human prosociality. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(5), 218–226.Google Scholar
Cole, M. (1996). Cultural psychology: The once and future discipline. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Corbit, J. (2019). Increased sharing between collaborators extends beyond the spoils of collaboration, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 186, 159–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2019.06.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corbit, J. (2020). Collaboration increases children’s normative concern for fairness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 198, 104887, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2020.104887Google Scholar
Corbit, J., Callaghan, T., & Svetlova, M. (2020). Toddlers’ costly helping in three societies. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 195, 104841. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2020.104841Google Scholar
Corbit, J., McAuliffe, K., Blake, P., Callaghan, T., & Warneken, F. (2017). Children’s collaboration induces fairness rather than generosity. Cognition, 168, 344–356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cowell, J. M., Lee, K., Malcolm-Smith, S., Selcuk, B., Zhou, X., & Decety, J. (2016). The development of generosity and moral cognition across five cultures. Developmental Science, 20(4). doi:10.1111/desc.12403Google Scholar
Decety, J., & Cowell, J. M. (2015). Empathy, justice, and moral behavior. AJOB Neuroscience, 6(3), 3–14. doi:10.1080/21507740.2015.1047055CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunfield, K., Kuhlmeier, V. A., O’Connell, L., & Kelley, E. (2011). Examining the diversity of prosocial behavior: Helping, sharing, and comforting in infancy. Infancy, 16(3), 227–247.Google Scholar
Dunfield, K. A. (2014). A construct divided: Prosocial behavior as helping, sharing, and comforting subtypes. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 958. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00958Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2006). Prosocial behavior. In N. Eisenberg, (Volume Ed.), Damon, W. & Lerner, R. M. (Series Eds.), Handbook of child psychology, Vol. 3: Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed, pp. 646–718). John Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Knafo-Noam, A. (2015). Prosocial development. In Lamb, M. E., Lerner, R. M., & Lamb, M. E. (Volume Eds.), Lerner, R. M. (Series Ed.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science, Vol. 3: Socioemotional processes (7th ed., pp. 610–656). John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Fehr, E., & Schmidt, K. M. (1999). A theory of fairness, competition, and cooperation. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 114(3), 817–868. doi:10.1162/003355399556151Google Scholar
García, C., Rivera, N., & Greenfield, P. M. (2015). The decline of cooperation, the rise of competition: Developmental effects of long‐term social change in Mexico. International Journal of Psychology, 50(1), 6–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geraci, A., & Surian, L. (2011). The developmental roots of fairness: Infants’ reactions to equal and unequal distributions of resources. Developmental Science, 14(5), 1012–1020. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01048.xGoogle Scholar
Giner Torréns, M., & Kärtner, J. (2017). The influence of socialization on early helping from a cross-cultural perspective. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. doi:10.1177/0022022117690451Google Scholar
Gummerum, M., Hanoch, Y., Keller, M., Parsons, K., & Hummel, A. (2010). Preschoolers’ allocations in the dictator game: The role of moral emotions. Journal of Economic Psychology, 31(1), 25–34. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2009.09.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamann, K., Bender, J., & Tomasello, M. (2014). Meritocratic sharing is based on collaboration in 3-year-olds. Developmental Psychology, 50(1), 121.Google Scholar
Hamann, K., Warneken, F., Greenberg, J. R., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Collaboration encourages equal sharing in children but not in chimpanzees. Nature, 476(7360), 328.Google Scholar
Hamlin, J. K. (2013). Moral judgment and action in preverbal infants and toddlers: Evidence for an innate moral core. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(3), 186–193.Google Scholar
Hamlin, J. K., & Wynn, K. (2011). Young infants prefer prosocial to antisocial others. Cognitive Development, 26(1), 30–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamlin, J. K., Wynn, K., & Bloom, P. (2007). Social evaluation by preverbal infants. Nature, 450(7169), 557–559. doi:10.1038/nature06288Google Scholar
Hamlin, J. K., Wynn, K., & Bloom, P. (2010). Three‐month‐olds show a negativity bias in their social evaluations. Developmental Science, 13(6), 923–929.Google Scholar
Hammond, S. I., & Carpendale, J. I. M. (2015). Helping children help: The relation between maternal scaffolding and children’s early help. Social Development, 24(2), 367–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12104CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hay, D. (1979). Cooperative interactions and sharing between very young children and their parents. Developmental Psychology, 6, 647–658. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.15.6.647Google Scholar
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(2–3), 61–83.Google Scholar
Henrich, N., & Henrich, J. (2007). Why humans cooperate: A cultural and evolutionary explanation. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hepach, R., & Herrmann, E. (2019). The development of prosocial attention across two cultures. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 138. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00138Google Scholar
Hepach, R., Vaish, A., & Tomasello, M. (2012). Young children are intrinsically motivated to see others helped. Psychological Science, 23(9), 967–972.Google Scholar
Hoffman, M. L. (2001). Prosocial behavior and empathy: Developmental processes. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 12230–12233. doi:10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/01739-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Sage Publications.Google Scholar
House, B. R. (2016). Diverse ontogenies of reciprocal and prosocial behavior: Cooperative development in Fiji and the United States. Developmental Science, 20(6), e12466. doi:10.1111/desc.12466Google Scholar
House, B. R., Kanngiesser, P., Barrett, H. C., Broesch, T., Cebioglu, S., Crittenden, A. N., Erut, A., Lew-Levy, S., Sebastian-Enesco, C., Smith, A. M., Yilmaz, S., & Silk, J. B. (2020). Universal norm psychology leads to societal diversity in prosocial behaviour and development. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(1), 36–44. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-019-0734-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
House, B. R., Kanngiesser, P., Barrett, H. C., Yilmaz, S., Smith, A. M., Sebastian-Enesco, C., Erut, A., & Silk, J. B. (2020). Social norms and cultural diversity in the development of third-party punishment. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 287(1925), 20192794. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2019.2794Google Scholar
House, B. R., Silk, J. B., Henrich, J., Barrett, H. C., Scelza, B. A., Boyette, A. H., Hewlett, B. S., McElreath, R., & Laurence, S. (2013). Ontogeny of prosocial behavior across diverse societies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(36), 14586–14591.Google Scholar
Huppert, E., Cowell, J. M., Cheng, Y., Contreras-Ibanez, C. C., Gomez-Sicard, N., Gonzalez-Gaeda, L. M., Huepe, D., Ibanez, A., Lee, K., Mahasneh, R., Malcolm-Smith, S., Salas, N., Selcuk, B., Tungodden, B., Wong, A., Zhou, X., & Decety, J. (2018). The development of children’s preferences for equality and equity across 13 individualistic and collectivist cultures. Developmental Science, 22, e12729. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12729Google Scholar
Jordan, J. J., McAuliffe, K., & Warneken, F. (2014). Development of in-group favoritism in children’s third-party punishment of selfishness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(35), 12710–12715.Google Scholar
Kagan, S., & Madsen, M. C. (1971). Cooperation and competition of Mexican, Mexican-American, and Anglo-American children of two ages under four instructional sets. Developmental Psychology, 5(1), 32.Google Scholar
Kajanus, A., McAuliffe, K., Warneken, F., & Blake, P. R. (2019). Children’s fairness in two Chinese schools: A combined ethnographic and experimental study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 177, 282–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.08.012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kanngiesser, P., & Warneken, F. (2012). Young children consider merit when sharing resources with others. PLoS ONE, 7(8), e43979. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0043979Google Scholar
Kärtner, J., Keller, H., & Chaudhary, N. (2010). Cognitive and social influences on early prosocial behavior in two sociocultural contexts. Developmental Psychology, 46(4), 905–914.Google Scholar
Kärtner, J., Schumacher, N., & Giner Torrens, M. (2020). Culture and early social development. In Hunnius, S. & Meer, M. (Volume Eds.), Walsh, E. (Series Ed.), New perspectives on early socio-cognitive development (pp. 225–246). Elsevier.Google Scholar
Keller, H. (2007). Cultures of infancy. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Keller, H. (2016). Psychological autonomy and hierarchical relatedness as organizers of developmental pathways. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 371(1686).Google Scholar
Köster, M., Cavalcante, L., de Carvalho, , Resende, B., & Kärtner, J. (2016). Cultural influences on toddlers’ prosocial behavior: How maternal task assignment relates to helping others. Child Development, 87, 1727–1738.Google Scholar
Köster, M., Itakura, S., Omori, M., & Kärtner, J. (2019). From understanding others’ needs to prosocial action: Motor and social abilities promote infants’ helping. Developmental Science, e12804. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12804Google Scholar
Köymen, B., Lieven, E., Engemann, D. A., Rakoczy, H., Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2014). Children’s norm enforcement in their interactions with peers. Child Development, 85(3), 1108–1122. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12178Google Scholar
Lancy, D. F. (2020). Child helpers: A multidisciplinary perspective. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108769204Google Scholar
Levine, R. A. (1980), Anthropology and child development. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 8, 71–86. doi:10.1002/cd.23219800809Google Scholar
LoBue, V., Nishida, T., Chiong, C., DeLoache, J. S., & Haidt, J. (2011), When getting something good is bad: Even three‐year‐olds react to inequality. Social Development, 20, 154–170. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2009.00560.xGoogle Scholar
Loewenstein, G. F., Thompson, L., & Bazerman, M. H. (1989). Social utility and decision making in interpersonal contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(3), 426–441. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.3.426Google Scholar
McAuliffe, K., Jordan, J. J., & Warneken, F. (2015). Costly third-party punishment in young children. Cognition, 134, 1–10.Google Scholar
McAuliffe, K., Raihani, N. J., & Dunham, Y. (2017). Children are sensitive to norms of giving. Cognition, 167, 151–159.Google Scholar
Melis, A. P., Grocke, P., Kalbitz, J., & Tomasello, M. (2016). One for you, one for me: Humans’ unique turn-taking skills. Psychological Science, 27(7), 987–996.Google Scholar
Melis, A. P., & Warneken, F. (2016). The psychology of cooperation: Insights from chimpanzees and children. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 25(6), 297–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nettle, D., Colléony, A., & Cockerill, M. (2011). Variation in cooperative behaviour within a single city. PLoS ONE, 6(10), e26922.Google Scholar
Nielsen, M. (2018). The social glue of cumulative culture and ritual behavior. Child Development Perspectives, 12(4), 264–268.Google Scholar
Nielsen, M., Haun, D., Kärtner, J., & Legare, C. H. (2017). The persistent sampling bias in developmental psychology: A call to action. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 162, 31–38.Google Scholar
Nowak, M. A. (2006). Five rules for the evolution of cooperation. Science, 314 (5805), 1560–1563.Google Scholar
Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2009). Eighteen-month-old infants show increased helping following priming with affiliation. Psychological Science, 20(10), 1189–1193.Google Scholar
Paulus, M. (2014). The emergence of prosocial behavior: Why do infants and toddlers help, comfort, and share? Child Development Perspectives, 8(2), 77–81.Google Scholar
Paulus, M., Jung, N., O’Driscoll, K., & Moore, C. (2017). Toddlers involve their caregiver to help another person in need. Infancy, 22(5), 645–664.Google Scholar
Paulus, M., & Leitherer, M. (2017). Preschoolers’ social experiences and empathy-based responding relate to their fair resource allocation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 161, 202–210.Google Scholar
Paulus, M., & Moore, C. (2015). Preschool children’s anticipation of recipients’ emotions affects their resource allocation. Social Development, 24(4), 852–867.Google Scholar
Rajhans, P., Altvater-Mackensen, N., Vaish, A., & Grossmann, T. (2016). Children’s altruistic behavior in context: The role of emotional responsiveness and culture. Scientific Reports, 6, 24089.Google Scholar
Rakoczy, H., Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2008). The sources of normativity: Young children’s awareness of the normative structure of games. Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 875.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rheingold, H. L. (1982). Little children’s participation in the work of adults, a nascent prosocial behavior. Child Development, 53, 114–125.Google Scholar
Robbins, E., & Rochat, P. (2011). Emerging signs of strong reciprocity in human ontogeny. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 353.Google Scholar
Rochat, P. (2014). Origins of possession: Owning and sharing in development. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rochat, P., Dias, M. D., Liping, G., Broesch, T., Passos-Ferreira, C., Winning, A., & Berg, B. (2009). Fairness in distributive justice by 3- and 5-year-olds across seven cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40(3), 416–442.Google Scholar
Rochat, P., & Robbins, E. (2016). Sharing and fairness in development. In Kiverstein, J. (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of philosophy of the social mind (pp. 222–244). Routledge.Google Scholar
Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rogoff, B. (2014). Learning by observing and pitching in to family and community endeavors: An orientation. Human Development, 57(2–3), 69–81.Google Scholar
Rogoff, B., Dahl, A., & Callanan, M. (2018). The importance of understanding children’s lived experience. Developmental Review, 50, 5–15.Google Scholar
Rogoff, B., Mistry, J., Göncü, A., Mosier, C., Chavajay, P., & Heath, S. B. (1993). Guided participation in cultural activity by toddlers and caregivers. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58(8), 1–179.Google Scholar
Safra, L., Tecu, T., Lambert, S., Sheskin, M., Baumard, N., & Chevallier, C. (2016). Neighborhood deprivation negatively impacts children’s prosocial behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1760.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salomo, D., & Liszkowski, U. (2013). Sociocultural settings influence the emergence of prelinguistic deictic gestures. Child Development, 84(4), 1296–1307.Google Scholar
Schäfer, M., Haun, D. B., & Tomasello, M. (2015). Fair is not fair everywhere. Psychological Science, 26(8), 1252–1260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, M. F., & Sommerville, J. A. (2011). Fairness expectations and altruistic sharing in 15-month-old human infants. PLoS ONE, 6(10), e23223.Google Scholar
Sebastián-Enesco, C., Hernández-Lloreda, M. V., & Colmenares, F. (2013). Two-and-a-half-year-old children are prosocial even when their partners are not. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 116(2), 186–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sebastián-Enesco, C., & Warneken, F. (2015). The shadow of the future: 5-year-olds, but not 3-year-olds, adjust their sharing in anticipation of reciprocation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 129, 40–54.Google Scholar
Shaw, A., & Olson, K. R. (2012). Children discard a resource to avoid inequity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141(2), 382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sloane, S., Baillargeon, R., & Premack, D. (2012). Do infants have a sense of fairness? Psychological Science, 23(2), 196–204.Google Scholar
Smith, C. E., Blake, P. R., & Harris, P. L. (2013). I should but I won’t: Why young children endorse norms of fair sharing but do not follow them. PLoS ONE, 8(3), e59510.Google Scholar
Svetlova, M., Nichols, S. R., & Brownell, C. A. (2010). Toddlers’ prosocial behavior: From instrumental to empathic to altruistic helping. Child Development, 81(6), 1814–1827.Google Scholar
Takagishi, H., Kameshima, S., Schug, J., Koizumi, M., & Yamagishi, T. (2010). Theory of mind enhances preference for fairness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 105(1–2), 130–137.Google Scholar
Tomasello, M. (2019). Becoming human: A theory of ontogeny. Belknap Press.Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 46(1), 35–57.Google Scholar
Trommsdorff, G., Friedlmeier, W., & Mayer, B. (2007). Sympathy, distress, and prosocial behavior of preschool children in four cultures. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31(3), 284–293.Google Scholar
Vaish, A., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2010). Young children selectively avoid helping people with harmful intentions. Child Development, 81(6), 1661–1669.Google Scholar
Wang, Q. (2016). Why should we all be cultural psychologists? Lessons from the study of social cognition. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(5), 583–596.Google Scholar
Warneken, F. (2015). Precocious prosociality: Why do young children help? Child Development Perspectives, 9(1), 1–6.Google Scholar
Warneken, F. (2016). Insights into the biological foundation of human altruistic sentiments. Current Opinion in Psychology, 7, 51–56.Google Scholar
Warneken, F., Hare, B., Melis, A. P., Hanus, D., & Tomasello, M. (2007). Spontaneous altruism by chimpanzees and young children. PLoS Biology, 5(7), e184.Google Scholar
Warneken, F., Lohse, K., Melis, A. P., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Young children share the spoils after collaboration. Psychological Science, 22(2), 267–273.Google Scholar
Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Altruistic helping in human infants and young chimpanzees. Science, 311(5765), 1301–1303.Google Scholar
Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2007). Helping and cooperation at 14 months of age. Infancy, 11(3), 271–294.Google Scholar
Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2008). Extrinsic rewards undermine altruistic tendencies in 20-month-olds. Developmental Psychology, 44(6), 1785.Google Scholar
Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2009). Varieties of altruism in children and chimpanzees. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(9), 397–402.Google Scholar
Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2013). The emergence of contingent reciprocity in young children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 116(2), 338–350.Google Scholar
Weltzien, S., Marsh, L., Kanngiesser, P., Stuijfzand, B., & Hood, B. (2019). Considering self or others across two cultural contexts: How children’s resource allocation is affected by self-construal manipulations. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 184, 139–157.Google Scholar
Whiting, B. B., & Whiting, J. W. (1975). Children of six cultures: A psycho-cultural analysis. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wilks, M., Redshaw, J., Mushin, I., & Nielsen, M. (2019). A cross-cultural investigation of children’s willingness to imitate prosocial and antisocial groups. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 185, 164–175.Google Scholar
Xiao, X., Liu, L., Xu, L., Liu, L., Chen, C., & Li, Y. (2019). Group bias in children’s merit-based resource allocation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 188, 104660.Google Scholar
Xu, J. (2019). Learning “merit” in a Chinese preschool: Bringing the anthropological perspective to understanding moral development. American Anthropologist, 121(3), 655–666.Google Scholar
Zebian, S., & Rochat, P. (2012). Judgment of land ownership by young refugee Palestinian and US children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 36(6), 449–456.Google Scholar
Zeidler, H., Herrmann, E., Haun, D., & Tomasello, M. (2016). Taking turns or not? Children’s approach to limited resource problems in three different cultures. Child Development, 87(3), 677–688.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×