The Self and Its Impact

K. Ann Renninger; Suzanne E. Hidi

Part I - The Self and Its Impact

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 15 February 2019

K. Ann Renninger and

Suzanne E. Hidi

Show author details

K. Ann Renninger: Affiliation:
Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania
Suzanne E. Hidi: Affiliation:
University of Toronto

Book contents

Get access

Summary

In this chapter, we describe psychological and neuroscientific research that demonstrates the unique characteristics of self-related information processing. These characteristics have been shown to produce beneficial effects on basic functions (such as perception, attention, and actions), as well as on higher-order cognitive activities (including memory). The findings are explained by their correspondence to the neurocorrelates of self-related information processing. Northoff's (2016) basic model of the self, which describes self-specificity to be a fundamental aspect of the brain's spontaneous (resting) activity, provides further clarification of these results. After considering the unique characteristics of self-related information processing, we describe the potential benefits of considering findings from neuroscience for educational practice by pointing to the positive outcomes of utility value interventions. More specifically, these types of interventions, which are grounded in the expectancy-value theory of student motivation, are examples of how self-related information processing can have educational benefits by increasing motivation and learning.

Type: Chapter
Information: The Cambridge Handbook of Motivation and Learning , pp. 13 - 138

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ainely, M. & Hidi, S. (2014). Interest and engagement. In Pekrun, R. & Linnenbrink-Gracia, L. (Eds.), International handbook of emotions and education (pp. 205–27). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar

Anderson, R. C., Shirey, L. L., Wilson, P. T., & Fielding, L. G. (1987). Interestingness of children's reading material. In Snow, R. E. & Farr, M. J. (Eds.), Aptitude, learning, and instruction, Vol. III: Cognitive and affective process analyses (pp. 287–99). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Carter, R. M., MacInnes, J. J., Huettel, S. A., & Adcock, R. A. (2009). Activation in the VTA and nucleus accumbens increases in anticipation of both gains and losses. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 3(21). doi: 10.3389/neuro.08.021.2009Google Scholar

Cohen, G. L., Garcia, J., Apfel, N., & Master, A. (2006). Reducing the racial achievement gap: A social-psychological intervention. Science, 313(5791), 1307–10. doi: 10.1126/science.1128317CrossRef Google Scholar

Cunningham, S. J., Brady-Van den Bos, M., & Turk, D. J. (2011). Exploring the effects of ownership and choice on self-memory biases. Memory, 19(5), 449–61. doi: 10.1080/09658211.2011.584388Google Scholar

Cunningham, S. J., Turk, D. J., Macdonald, L. M., & Macrae, C. N. (2008). Yours or mine? Ownership and memory. Consciousness and Cognition, 17(1), 312–18. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2007.04.003Google Scholar

D'Argembeau, A., Collette, F., Van der, Linden, Laureys, S., Del Fiore, G., Degueldre, C., … Salmon, E. (2005). Self-referential reflective and its relationship with rest: A PET study. NeuroImage, 25(2), 616–24. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.11.048CrossRef Google Scholar

de Greck, M., Enzi, B., Prösch, U., Gantman, A., Tempelmann, C., & Northoff, G. (2010). Decreased neuronal activity in reward circuitry of pathological gamblers during processing of personal relevant stimuli. Human Brain Mapping, 31(11), 1802–12. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20981Google Scholar

de Greck, M., Rotte, M., Paus, R., Moritz, D., Thiemann, R., Proesch, U., … Northoff, G. (2008). Is our self based on reward? Self-relatedness recruits neural activity in the reward system. NeuroImage, 39(4), 2066–75.Google Scholar

de Greck, M., Supady, A., Thiemann, R., Tempelmann, C., Bogerts, B., Forschner, L., … Northoff, G. (2009). Decreased neural activity in reward circuitry during personal reference in abstinent alcoholics – A fMRI study. Human Brain Mapping, 30(5), 1691–704. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20634Google Scholar

Denny, B. T., Kober, H., Wager, T. D., & Oschner, K. N. (2012). A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of self and other judgements reveals a spatial gradient for mentalizing in medical prefrontal cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24(8) 1742–52. doi: 10.1162/jocn_a_00233CrossRef Google Scholar

Eccles, J. S. & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–32. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153Google Scholar

Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values and academic behaviors. In Spence, J. T. (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman.Google Scholar

Elliott, R., Newman, J. L., Longe, O. A., & William Deakin, J. F. (2004). Instrumental responding for rewards is associated with enhanced neuronal response in subcortical reward systems. NeuroImage, 21, 984–90.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ersner-Hershfield, H., Wimmer, G. E., & Knutson, B. (2009). Saving for the future self: Neural measures of future self-continuity predict temporal discounting. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 4(1), 85–92. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsn042Google Scholar

Estrada, M., Burnett, M., Campbell, A. G., Campbell, P. B., Denetclaw, W. F., Gutiérriz, C. G., … Zavala, M. (2016). Improving underrepresented minority student persistence in STEM. CBE – Life Science Education, 15(3), Es5. doi: 10.1187/cbe.16-01-0038CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Frings, C. & Wentura, D. (2014). Self-priorization processes in action and perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 40(5), 1737. doi: 10.1037/a0037376Google Scholar

Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Brisson, B. M., Hafner, I., Nagengast, B., & Trautwein, U. (2015). Fostering adolescents’ value beliefs for mathematics with a relevance intervention in the classroom. Developmental Psychology, 51(9), 1226–40. doi: 10.1037/dev0000028Google Scholar

Gottlieb, J., Oudeyer, P.-Y., Lopes, M., & Baranes, A. (2013). Information seeking, curiosity and attention: Computational and neural mechanisms. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(11) 585–93. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2013.09.001Google Scholar

Grimm, S., Ernst, J., Boesiger, P., Schuepbach, D., Hell, D., Boeker, H., & Northoff, , (2009). Increased self-focus in major depressive disorder is related to neural abnormalities in subcortical-cortical midline structures. Human Brain Mapping, 30(8), 2617–27. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20693Google Scholar

Gruber, M. J., Gelman, B. D., & Ranganath, C. (2014). States of curiosity modulate hippocampus-dependent learning via the dopaminergic circuit. Neuron, 84(2), 486–96. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.08.060Google Scholar

Harackiewicz, J. M., Canning, E., Priniski, S. J., & Tibbetts, Y. (2016, April). Why is writing about value so powerful? Paper presented as part of the symposium, The roles of value and interest in promoting learning. (K. A. Renninger, Chair). American Educational Research Association, Washington, DC.Google Scholar

Harackiewicz, J. M., Canning, E. A., Tibbetts, Y., Giffen, C., Blair, S. S., Rouse, D. I., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Closing the social class achievement gap for first-generation students in undergraduate biology. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(2), 375–89. doi: 10.1037/a0034679CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Harackiewicz, J. M., Canning, E. A., Tibbetts, Y., Prinski, S. J., & Hyde, J. S. (2015). Closing the achievement gaps with a utility-value intervention: Disentangling race and social class. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(5), 745–65. doi: 10.1037/pspp0000075Google Scholar

Harackiewicz, J. M., Hulleman, C. S., & Pastor, D. A. (2009, August). Developmental trajectories of interest within semester-long courses in high school science and introductory psychology. Paper presented at the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI) Biennial Conference. Munich, Germany.Google Scholar

Harackiewicz, J. M., Rozek, C. R., Hulleman, C. S., & Hyde, J. S. (2012). Helping parents motivate their teens in mathematics and science: An experimental test of a utility-value intervention. Psychological Science, 23(8), 899–906. doi: 10.1177/0956797611435530Google Scholar

Harackiewicz, J. M., Smith, J. L., & Priniski, S. J. (2016). Interest matters: The importance of promoting interest in education. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(2), 220–7. doi: 10.1177/2372732216655542Google Scholar

Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In Karabenick, S. A. & Urdan, T. C. (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). UK: Emerald. doi: 10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002Google Scholar

Hernandez, P. R., Schultz, P. W., Estrada, M., Woodcock, A., & Chance, R. C. (2013). Sustaining optimal motivation: A longitudinal analysis of interventions to broaden participation of underrepresented students in STEM. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(1), 1–36. doi: 10.1037/a0029691Google Scholar PubMed

Hidi, S. (2016). Revisiting the role of rewards in motivation and learning: Implications of neuroscientific research. Educational Psychology Review, 28(1), 61–93.CrossRef Google Scholar

Hidi, S. & Baird, W. (1986). Interestingness: A neglected variable in discourse processing. Cognitive Science, 10(2), 179–94.Google Scholar

Hidi, S. E., Renninger, K. A., & Northoff, G. (2017). The development of interest and self-related processing. In Guay, F., Marsh, H. W., McInerney, D. M., & Craven, R. G. (Eds.), International advances in self research, Volume 6: SELF – Driving positive psychology and well-being. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Press.Google Scholar

Hu, C., Di, X., Eickhoff, S. B., Zhang, M., Peng, K., Guo, H., & Sui, J. (2016). Distinct and common aspects of physical and psychological self-representation in the brain: A meta-analysis of self-bias in facial and self-referential judgements. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 61, 197–207. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.12.003Google Scholar

Hulleman, C. S. & Barron, K. E. (2016). Motivation interventions in education: Bridging theory, research, and practice. In Corno, L. & Anderman, E. M. (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (3rd ed., pp. 160–71). New York, NY: Routledge, Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar

Hulleman, C. & Harackiewicz, J. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5698), 1410–12. doi: 10.1126/science.1177067CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hulleman, C. S., Godes, O., Hendricks, B. L., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2010). Enhancing interest and performance with a utility value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 880–95. doi: 10.1037/a0019506Google Scholar

Hulleman, C. S., Kosovich, J. J., Barron, K. E., & Daniel, D. B. (2016). Making connections: Replicating and extending the utility value intervention in the classroom. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(3), 387–404. doi: 10.1037/edu0000146CrossRef Google Scholar

Humphreys, G. W. & Sui, J. (2015). The salient self: Social saliency effects based on self-bias. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 27(2), 129–40.Google Scholar

Hurtado, S. & Carter, D. F. (1997). Effects of college transition and perceptions of campus climate on Latino college students’ sense of belonging. Sociology of Education, 70(4), 324–45. doi: 10.2307/2673270Google Scholar

Hyde, J. S., Canning, E. A., Rozek, C. S., Clarke, E., Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. (2016). The role of mothers’ communication in promoting motivation for math and science course-taking in high school. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 27, 49–64. doi: 10.1111/jora.12253Google Scholar

Kang, M. J., Hsu, M., Krajbich, I. M., Loewenstein, G., McClure, S. M., Wang, J. T., & Camerer, C. F., (2009). The wick in the candle of learning: Epistemic curiosity activates reward circuitry and enhances memory. Psychological Science, 20, 963–73. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02402.xGoogle Scholar

Knyazev, G. G. (2013). EEG correlates of self-referential processing. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 1–14. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00264Google Scholar

Lazowski, R. A. & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation interventions in education: A meta-analytic review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–40. doi: 10.3102/0034654315617832Google Scholar

Lou, H. C., Changeux, J. P., & Rosenstand, A. (2016). Towards a cognitive neuroscience of self-awareness. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 83, 765–73. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.04.004Google Scholar PubMed

Matsui, J., Liu, R., & Kane, C. M. (2003). Evaluating a science diversity program at UC Berkeley: More questions than answers. Cell Biology Education, 2, 117–21. doi: 10.1187/cbe.02-10-0050Google Scholar

van der Meer, L., Costafreda, S., Aleman, A., & David, A. S. (2010). Self-reflection and the brain: A theoretical review and meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies with implications for schizophrenia. Neuroscience & Behavioral Reviews, 34(6), 935–46. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.12.004CrossRef Google Scholar

Mitchell, J. P., Schirmer, J., Ames, D. L., & Gilbert, D. T. (2011). Medial prefrontal cortex predicts intertemporal choice. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(4), 857–66. doi: 10.1162/jocn.2010.21479Google Scholar

Moran, J. M., Macrae, C. N., Heatherton, T. F., Wyland, C. L., & Kelley, W. M. (2006). Neuroanatomical evidence for distinct cognitive and affective components of self. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18(9), 1586–94.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Northoff, G. (2016). Is the self a higher-order or fundamental function of the brain? The “basis model of self-specificity” and its encoding by the brain's spontaneous activity. Cognitive Neuroscience, 7(1–4), 203–22. doi: 10.1080/17588928.2015.1111868Google Scholar

Northoff, G. & Hayes, D. J. (2011). Is our self nothing but reward? Biological Psychiatry, 69(11), 1019–25. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.12.014Google Scholar

Northoff, G., Heinzel, A., de Greck, M. D., Bermpohl, F., Dobrowolny, H., & Panksepp, J. (2006). Self-referential processing in our brain–A meta-analysis of imaging studies on the self. NeuroImage, 31(1), 440–57. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.12.002Google Scholar

Northoff, G., Schneider, F., Rotte, M., Matthiae, C., Tempelmann, C., Wiebking, C., … Panksepp, J., (2009). Differential parametric modulation of self-relatedness and emotions in different brain regions. Human Brain Mapping, 30(2), 369–82. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20510Google Scholar

Oyserman, D., Terry, K., & Bybee, D., (2002). A possible selves intervention to enhance school involvement. Journal of Adolescence, 25, 313–26. doi: 10.1006/jado.2002.0474Google Scholar

Pfeiffer, U. J., Vogeley, K., & Schilbach, L. (2013). From gaze cueing to dual eye-tracking: Novel approaches to investigate the neural correlates of gaze in social interaction. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(10), 2516–28. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.07.017Google Scholar

Phan, K. L., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., Ho, S. H., Britton, J. C., & Liberzon, I. (2004). Neural correlates of individual ratings of emotional salience: A trial-related fMRI study. NeuroImage, 21(2), 768–80. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.072Google Scholar

Qin, P. & Northoff, G. (2011). How is our self related to midline regions and the default-mode network? NeuroImage, 57(3), 1221–33.Google Scholar

Renninger, K. A. (2009). Interest and identity development in instruction: An inductive model. Educational Psychologist, 44(2), 1–14. doi: 10.1080/00461520902832392Google Scholar

Renninger, K. A. & Hidi, S. (2016). The power of interest for motivation and engagement. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar

Rosenzweig, E. Q. & Wigfield, A. (2016). STEM motivation interventions for adolescents: A promising start, but further to go. Educational Psychologist, 51(2), 146–63. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2016.1154792Google Scholar

Schilbach, L., Bzdok, D., Timmermans, B., Fox, P. T., Laird, A. R., Vogeley, K., & Eickhoff, S. B. (2012). Introspective minds: Using ALE meta-analyses to study commonalities in the neural correlates of emotional processing, social & unconstrained cognition. PLoS One, 7(2), e30920.Google Scholar

Schilbach, L., Timmermans, B., Reddy, V., Costall, A., Bente, G., Schlicht, T., & Vogeley, K. (2013, August). Toward a second person. Behavioural Brain Science, 36(4), 393–414. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X1200066Google Scholar

Schultz, W. (2007). Behavioural theories and the neurophysiology of reward. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 87–115.Google Scholar

Schweder, R. (1993). The cultural psychology of the emotions. In Lewis, M. & Haviland, J. M. (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 417–31). New York, NY: Guilford Publications.Google Scholar

Shell, D. F., Brooks, D. W., Trainin, G., Wilson, K. M., Kauffman, D. F., & Herr, L. M. (2010). The unified learning model: How motivational, cognitive, and neurobiological sciences inform best teaching practices. Dordrecht: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-3215-7Google Scholar

Slovacek, S. P., Whittinghill, J. C., Tucker, S., Rath, K. A., Peterfreund, A. R., Kuehn, G. D., & Reinke, Y. G. (2011). Minority students severely underrepresented in science, technology engineering and math. Journal of STEM Education, 12(1), 5–16.Google Scholar

Sui, J. & Humphreys, G. W. (2015). Super-size me: Self biases increase to larger stimuli. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(2), 550–8. doi: 10.3758/s13423-014-0690-6Google Scholar

Sui, J., He, X., & Humphreys, G. W. (2012). Perceptual effects of social salience: Evidence from self-prioritization effects on perceptual matching. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 38(5), 1105–17. doi: 10.1037/a0029792Google Scholar

Sui, J., Liu, M., Mevorach, C., & Humphreys, G. W. (2013). The salient self: The left intraparietal sulcus responds to social as well as perceptual-salience after self-association. Cerebral Cortex, 25(4), 1060–8. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bht302Google Scholar

Sui, J., Rotshtein, P., & Humphreys, G. W. (2014). Coupling social attention to the self forms a network for personal significance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(19), 7607–12. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1221862110Google Scholar

Symons, C. S. & Johnson, B. T. (1997). The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 121(3), 371–94.Google Scholar

Tricomi, E. M., Delgado, M. R., & Fiez, J. A. (2004). Modulation of caudate activity by action contingency. Neuron, 41, 281–92. doi: 10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00848-1Google Scholar

Walkington, C. (2013). Using adaptive learning technologies to personalize instruction to student interests: The impact of relevant contexts on performance and learning outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(94), 932–45. doi: 10.1037/a0031882CrossRef Google Scholar

Walkington, C., Petrosino, A., & Sherman, M. (2013). Supporting algebraic reasoning through personalized story scenarios: How situational understanding mediates performance and strategies. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 15(2), 89–120. doi: 10.1080/10986065.2013.770717Google Scholar

Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Moran, J. M., Nieto-Castanon, A., Triantafyllou, C., Saxe, R., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2011). Associations and dissociations between default and self-reference networks in the human brain. NeuroImage, 55(1), 225–32. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.11.048Google Scholar

Wigfield, A. & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30(1), 1–35. doi: 10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001CrossRef Google Scholar

Wigfield, A. & Eccles, J. S. (2002a). Children's motivation during the middle school years. In Aronson, J. (Ed.), Improving academic achievement: Contributions of social psychology (pp. 159–84). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. doi: 10.1016/b978-012064455-1/50011-7Google Scholar

Wigfield, A. & Eccles, J. S. (2002b). The development of competence beliefs, expectancies for success, and achievement values from childhood through adolescence. In Wigfield, A. & Eccles, J. S. (Eds.), Development of achievement motivation. A volume in the Educational Psychology Series (pp. 249–84). San Diego, CA: Acade5mic Press. doi: 10.1016/B978-012750053-9/50012-7Google Scholar

Woolley, M. E., Rose, R. A., Orthner, D. K., Akos, P. T., & Jones-Sanpei, H. (2013). Advancing academic achievement through career relevance in the middle grades: A longitudinal evaluation of CareerStart. American Educational Research Journal, 50(6), 1309–35. doi: 10.3102/0002831213488818Google Scholar

Zhan, Y., Xiao, X., Li, F., Fan, W., & Zhong, Y. (2016). Reward promotes self-face processing: An event-related potential study. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 735. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00735Google Scholar

Zink, C. F., Pagnoni, G., Martin-Skurski, M. E., Chappelow, J. C., & Berns, G. S. (2004). Human striatal responses to monetary reward depend on saliency. Neuron, 42, 509–17. doi: 10.1016/S0896-6273(04)00183-7Google Scholar

References

Bandura, A. (2008a). An agentic perspective on positive psychology. In Lopez, S. J. (Ed.), Positive psychology: Exploring the best in people, Vol. 1: Discovering human strengths (pp. 167–96). Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (2008b). Toward an agentic theory of the self. In Marsh, H., Craven, R. G., & McInerney, D. M. (Eds.), Advances in self research, Vol. 3: Self-processes, learning, and enabling human potential (pp. 15–49). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.Google Scholar

Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 1–44.Google Scholar

Byrne, B. M. (1996). Measuring self-concept across the life span: Issues and instrumentation. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar

Byrne, B. M. (2002). Validating the measurement and structure of self-concept: Snapshots of past, present, and future research. American Psychologist, 57, 897–909.Google Scholar

Calsyn, R. & Kenny, D. (1997). Self-concept of ability and perceived evaluations by others: Cause or effect of academic achievement? Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, 136–45.Google Scholar

Chen, S., Yeh, Y., Hwang, F., & Lin, S. S. J. (2013). The relationship between academic self-concept and achievement: A multicohort–multioccasion study. Learning and Individual Differences, 23, 172–8.Google Scholar

Craven, R. G., Marsh, H. W., & Debus, R. L. (1991). Effects of internally focused feedback and attributional feedback on enhancement of academic self-concept. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(1), 17–27.Google Scholar

Dai, D. Y. (2002). Incorporating parent perceptions: A replication and extension study of the internal-external frame of reference model of self-concept development. Journal of Adolescent Research, 17(6), 617–45.CrossRef Google Scholar

Dai, D. Y. (2004). How universal is the big-fish-little-pond effect? American Psychologist, 59, 267–68. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.59.4.267.Google Scholar

Dai, D. Y. & Rinn, A. N. (2008). The big-fish–little-pond effect: What do we know and where do we go from here? Educational Psychology Review, 20, 283–317. doi: 10.1007/s10648-008-9071-x.Google Scholar

Dickhäuser, O. (2005). Teachers’ inferences about students’ self-concepts – the role of dimensional comparison. Learning and Instruction, 15(3), 225–35. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2005.04.004.Google Scholar

Eder, R. A. & Mangelsdorf, S. C. (1997). The emotional basis of early personality development: Implications for the emergent self-concept. In Hogan, R., Johnson, J., & Briggs, S. (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 209–40). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Elliot, A. J. & Dweck, C. S. (2005). Competence and motivation: Competence as the core of achievement motivation. In Elliot, A. J. & Dweck, C. S. (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 3–12). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Gladwell, M. (2008). Outliers. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company.Google Scholar

Greenwald, A. G. (1988). A social-cognitive account of the self's development. In Lapsley, D. K. & Power, F. C. (Eds.), Self, ego, and identity: Interpretative approaches (pp. 30–42). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar

Guay, F., Marsh, H. W., & Boivin, M. (2003). Academic self-concept and academic achievement: Developmental perspectives on their causal ordering. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 124–36.Google Scholar

Guo, J., Marsh, H. W., Morin, A. J. S., Parker, P. D., & Kaur, G. (2015). Directionality of the associations of high school expectancy-value, aspirations, and attainment: A longitudinal study. American Educational Research Journal, 52(2), 371–402. doi: 10.3102/0002831214565786.Google Scholar

Guo, J., Marsh, H. W., Parker, P. D., Morin, A. J. S., & Dicke, T. (2017). Extending expectancy-value theory predictions of achievement and aspirations in science: Dimensional comparison processes and expectancy-by-value interactions. Learning and Instruction, 49, 81–91.Google Scholar

Haney, P. & Durlak, J. A. (1998). Changing self-esteem in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 423–33.Google Scholar

Hansford, B. C. & Hattie, J. A. (1982). The relationship between self and achievement/performance measures. Review of Educational Research, 52, 123–42.Google Scholar

Harackiewicz, J. M., Durik, A. M., Barron, K. E., Linnenbrink-Garcia, L., & Tauer, J. M. (2008). The role of achievement goals in the development of interest: Reciprocal relations between achievement goals, interest, and performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 105–22. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.105.Google Scholar

Harter, S. (1998). The development of self-representations. In Damon, W. & Eisenberg, N. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (5th ed., pp. 553–617) Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar

Harter, S. (2012). The construction of the self: Developmental and sociocultural foundations. New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Hattie, J. (1992). Self-concept. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Hattie, J. A. (2012). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Abingdon: Routledge.Google Scholar

Huang, C. (2011). Self-concept and academic achievement: A meta-analysis of longitudinal relations. Journal of School Psychology, 49, 505–28.Google Scholar

Hunter, J. P. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2003). The positive psychology of interested adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 27–35.Google Scholar

James, W. (1890/1963). The principles of psychology. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar

Jansen, M., Schroeders, U., Lüdtke, O., & Marsh, H. W. (2015). Contrast and assimilation effects of dimensional comparisons in five subjects: An extension of the I/E model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(4), 1086–101.Google Scholar

Jonkmann, K., Becker, M., Marsh, H. W., Lüdtke, O., & Trautwein, U. (2012). Personality traits moderate the big-fish-little-pond effect of academic self-concept. Learning and Individual Differences, 22, 736–46.Google Scholar

Kagan, S. L., Moore, E., & Bredekamp, S. (1995). Considering children's early development and learning: Toward common views and vocabulary (Report N. 95-03). Washington, DC: National Education Goals Pane.Google Scholar

Kling, K. C., Hyde, J. S., Showers, C. J., & Buswell, B. N. (1999). Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 470–500.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. (1986). Verbal and math self-concepts: An internal/external frame of reference model. American Educational Research Journal, 23, 129–49.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. (1987). The big-fish-little-pond effect on academic self-concept. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79(3), 280–95.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. (1989). Age and sex effects in multiple dimensions of self-concept: Preadolescence to early adulthood. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 417–30.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. (1990a). The causal ordering of academic self-concept and academic achievement: A multiwave, longitudinal panel analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 646–56.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. (1990b). A multidimensional, hierarchical self-concept: Theoretical and empirical justification. Educational Psychology Review, 2, 77–172.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. (1991). Failure of high ability schools to deliver academic benefits commensurate with their students’ ability levels. American Educational Research Journal, 28(2), 445–80.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. (1993). Academic self-concept: Theory, measurement, and research. In Suls, J. (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on the self (pp. 59–98). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. (2007). Self-concept theory, measurement, and research into practice: The role of self-concept in educational psychology. (pp. 59–98). Leicester: British Psychological Society.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. (2008). A multidimensional, hierarchical model of self-concept: An important facet of personality. In Boyle, G. J., Matthews, G., & Saklofske, D. H. (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of personality theory and assessment, Vol. 1: Personality theories and models (pp. 447–69). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. (2016). Cross-cultural generalizability of year in school effects: Negative effects of acceleration and positive effects of retention on academic self-concept. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(2), 256–73. doi: 10.1037/edu0000059.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Abduljabbar, A. S., Parker, P. D., Morin, A. J. S., Abdelfattah, F., Nagengast, B., ... Abu-Hilal, M. M. (2015). The internal/external frame of reference model of self-concept and achievement relations: Age-cohort and cross-cultural differences. American Educational Research Journal, 52(1), 168–202.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. & Ayotte, V. (2003). Do multiple dimensions of self-concept become more differentiated with age? The differential distinctiveness hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 687–706.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Chanal, J. P., & Sarrazin, P. G. (2006a). Self-belief does make a difference: A reciprocal effects model of the causal ordering of physical self-concept and gymnastics performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24, 101–11.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Chessor, D., Craven, R. G., & Roche, L. (1995). The effects of gifted-and-talented programmes on academic self-concept: The big fish strikes again. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 285–319.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. & Craven, R. G. (1997). Academic self-concept: Beyond the dustbowl. In Phye, G. (Ed.), Handbook of classroom assessment: learning, achievement, and adjustment (pp. 131–93). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. & Craven, R. G. (2006). Reciprocal effects of self-concept and performance from a multidimensional perspective: Beyond seductive pleasure and unidimensional perspectives. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 133–63.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Debus, R. L. (1998). Structure, stability, and development of young children's self-concepts: A multicohort–multioccasion study. Child Development, 69, 1030–53.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Debus, R., & Bornholt, L. (2005). Validating young children's self-concept responses: Methodological ways and means to understand their responses. In Teti, D. M. (Ed.), Handbook of research methods in developmental science (pp. 138–60). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Ellis, L. A., & Craven, R. G. (2002). How do preschool children feel about themselves? Unravelling measurement and multidimensional self-concept structure. Developmental Psychology, 38, 376–93.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. & Hau, K. T. (2003). Big-fish-little-pond effect on academic self-concept: A cross-cultural (26 country) test of the negative effects of academically selective schools. American Psychologist, 58, 364.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. & Hau, K. T. (2004). Explaining paradoxical relations between academic self-concepts and achievements: Cross-cultural generalizability of the internal/external frame of reference predictions across 26 countries. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 56–67.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Köller, O., & Baumert, J. (2001a). Reunification of East and West German school systems: Longitudinal multilevel modeling study of the big-fish-little-pond effect on academic self-concept. American Educational Research Journal, 38(2), 321–50.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Kong, C. K., & Hau, K. (2001b). Extension of the internal/external frame of reference model of self-concept formation: Importance of native and non-native languages for Chinese students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 543–3. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.93.3.543.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Kuyper, H., Morin, A. J. S., Parker, P. D., & Seaton, M. (2014). Big-fish-little-pond social comparison and local dominance effects: Integrating new statistical models, methodology, design, theory, and substantive implications. Learning and Instruction, 33, 50–66. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.04.002 Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., & Hau, K. (2006b). A multimethod perspective on self-concept research in educational psychology: A construct validity approach. In Eid, M. & Diener, E. (Eds.), Handbook of multimethod measurement in psychology (pp. 441–56). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. & O'Mara, A. (2008). Reciprocal effects between academic self-concept, self-esteem, achievement, and attainment over seven adolescent years: Unidimensional and multidimensional perspectives of self-concept. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 542–52.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. & O'Mara, A. J. (2010). Long-term total negative effects of school-average ability on diverse educational outcomes: Direct and indirect effects of the big-fish-little-pond effect. German Journal of Educational Psychology, 24, 51–72.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. & Parker, J. (1984). Determinants of student self-concept: Is it better to be a relatively large fish in a small pond even if you don't learn to swim as well? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 213–31.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Parker, P. D., & Pekrun, R. (2018a). Three paradoxical effects on academic self-concept across countries, schools, and students: Frame-of-reference as a unifying theoretical explanation. European Psychologist. doi: 10.1027/1016-9040/a000332.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. & Peart, N. (1988). Competitive and cooperative physical fitness training programs for girls: Effects on physical fitness and on multidimensional self-concepts. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10, 390–407.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Pekrun, R., Murayama, K., Arens, A. K., Parker, P. D., Guo, J., & Dicke, T. (2018b). An integrated model of academic self-concept development: Academic self-concept, grades, test scores, and tracking over 6 years. Developmental Psychology. 54(2), 263–80.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Pekrun, R., Murayama, K., Guo, J., Dicke, T., Lichtenfeld, S. (2017). Long-term positive effects of repeating a year in school: Six-year longitudinal study of self-beliefs, anxiety, social relations, school grades, and test scores. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(3), 425–38. doi: 10.1037/edu0000144.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. & Perry, C. (2005). Self-concept contributes to winning gold medals: Causal ordering of self-concept and elite swimming performance. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 27, 71–91.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. & Richards, G. (1988). The Outward Bound bridging course for low achieving high-school males: Effect on academic achievement and multidimensional self-concepts. Australian Journal of Psychology, 40, 281–98.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Richards, G., & Barnes, J. (1986a). Multidimensional self-concepts: A long-term follow-up of the effect of participation in an Outward Bound program. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12, 475–92.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Richards, G., & Barnes, J. (1986b). Multidimensional self-concepts: The effect of participation in an Outward Bound program. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 173–87.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. & Seaton, M. (2015). The big-fish–little-pond effect, competence self-perceptions, and relativity: Substantive advances and methodological innovation. In Elliott, A. J. (Ed.), Advances in Motivation Science, 2, 127–84. New York, NY: Elsevier.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Seaton, M., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Hau, K. T., O'Mara, A. J., & Craven, R. G. (2008). The big-fish-little-pond-effect stands up to critical scrutiny: Implications for theory, methodology, and future research. Educational Psychology Review, 20, 319–50.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W. & Shavelson, R. (1985). Self-concept: Its multifaceted, hierarchical structure. Educational Psychologist, 20, 107–25.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Tracey, D. K., & Craven, R. G. (2006c). Multidimensional self-concept structure for preadolescents with mild intellectual disabilities: A hybrid multigroup-mimic approach to factorial invariance and latent mean differences. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66, 795–818.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., & Baumert, J. (2007). The big-fish–little-pond effect: Persistent negative effects of selective high schools on self-concept after graduation. American Educational Research Journal, 44(3), 631–69.Google Scholar

Marsh, H. W., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Köller, O., & Baumert, J. (2006d). Integration of multidimensional self-concept and core personality constructs: Construct validation and relations to well-being and achievement. Journal of Personality, 74, 403–56.Google Scholar

Marx, R. W. & Winne, P. H. (1978). Construct interpretations of three self-concept inventories. American Educational Research Journal, 15(1), 99–109.Google Scholar

Möller, J. & Husemann, N. (2006). Internal comparisons in everyday life. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 342–53. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.98.2.342.Google Scholar

Möller, J. & Köller, O. (2001). Dimensional comparisons: An experimental approach to the internal/external frames of reference model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 826–35.Google Scholar

Möller, J. & Marsh, H. W. (2013). Dimensional comparison theory. Psychological Review, 120(3), 544–60. doi: 10.1037/a0032459.Google Scholar

Möller, J., Pohlmann, B., Köller, O., & Marsh, H. W. (2009). A meta-analytic path analysis of the internal/external frame of reference model of academic achievement and academic self-concept. Review of Educational Research, 79, 1129–67.Google Scholar

Möller, J. & Savyon, K. (2003). Not very smart thus moral: Dimensional comparisons between academic self-concept and honesty. Social Psychology of Education, 6, 95–106. doi: 10.1023/A:1023247910033.Google Scholar

Nagengast, B. & Marsh, H. W. (2012). Big fish in little ponds aspire more: Mediation and cross-cultural generalizability of school-average ability effects on self-concept and career aspirations in science. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 1033–53.Google Scholar

O'Mara, A. J., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Debus, R. (2006). Do self-concept interventions make a difference? A synergistic blend of construct validation and meta-analysis. Educational Psychologist, 41, 181–206.Google Scholar

Pinxten, M., De Fraine, B., Damme, J., & D'Haenens, E. (2010). Causal ordering of academic self-concept and achievement: Effects of type of achievement measure. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 689–709.Google Scholar

Pohlmann, B. & Möller, J. (2009). On the benefit of dimensional comparisons. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(1), 248–58. doi: 10.1037/a0013151.Google Scholar

Seaton, M., Marsh, H. W., & Craven, R. G. (2009). Earning its place as a pan-human theory: Universality of the big-fish-little-pond effect across 41 culturally and economically diverse countries. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 403–19.Google Scholar

Seaton, M., Marsh, H. W., & Craven, R. G. (2010). Big-fish-little-pond effect generalizability and moderation – two sides of the same coin. American Educational Research Journal, 47, 390–433.Google Scholar

Seaton, M., Marsh, H. W., Parker, P. D., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2015). The reciprocal effects model revisited: Extending its reach to gifted students attending academically selective schools. Gifted Child Quarterly, 59(3), 143–56. doi: 10.1177/0016986215583870.Google Scholar

Shavelson, R. J. & Bolus, R. (1982). Self-concept: The interplay of theory and methods. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74(1), 3–17.Google Scholar

Shavelson, R. J., Hubner, J. J., & Stanton, G. C. (1976). Self-concept: Validation of construct interpretations. Review of Educational Research, 46, 407–41.Google Scholar

Skaalvik, E. M. & Skaalvik, S. (2002). Internal and external frames of reference for academic self-concept. Educational Psychologist, 37, 233–44.Google Scholar

Valentine, J. C. & DuBois, D. L. (2005). Effects of self-beliefs on academic achievement and vice-versa: Separating the chicken from the egg. In Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & McInerney, D. M. (Eds.), International advances in self research (pp. 203–30). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.Google Scholar

Valentine, J. C., DuBois, D. L., & Cooper, H. (2004). The relations between self-beliefs and academic achievement: A systematic review. Educational Psychologist, 39, 111–33.Google Scholar

Van Zanden, B. E., Marsh, H. W., Seaton, M., Parker, P. D., Guo, J., & Duineveld, J. J. (2016). How well do parents know their adolescent children? Extending the internal/external frame of reference model of self-concept to parents. Learning and Instruction, 47, 25–32.Google Scholar

Watson, D., Suls, J., & Haig, J. (2002). Global self-esteem in relation to structural models of personality and affectivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 185.Google Scholar

Wells, L. E. & Marwell, G. (1976). Self-esteem: Its conceptualisation and measurement. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar

Wylie, R. C. (1979). The Self-concept, Vol. 2: Theory and research on selected topics. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar

Xu, M. K. (2010). Frame of reference effects in academic self-concept: An examination of the big-fish-little-pond effect and the internal/external frame of reference model for Hong Kong adolescents. PhD thesis, University of Oxford.Google Scholar

Zeidner, M. H. & Schleyer, E. J. (1999). The big-fish-little-pond effect for academic self-concept, test anxiety, and school grades in gifted children. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24(4), 305–29.Google Scholar

References

Ahn, H. S., Bong, M., & Kim, S. (2013). Interaction between implicit theories, classroom goal structures, and sources of efficacy information on math self-efficacy. Poster Session presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar

Ahn, H. S., Bong, M., & Kim, S. (2017). Social models in the cognitive appraisal of self-efficacy information. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 48, 149–66. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.08.002.Google Scholar

Ahn, H. S., Usher, E. L., Butz, A. R., & Bong, M. (2016). Cultural differences in the understanding of modelling and feedback as sources of self-efficacy information. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 112–36. doi: 10.1111/bjep.12093.Google Scholar

Alivernini, F. & Lucidi, F. (2011). Relationship between social context, self-efficacy, motivation, academic achievement, and intention to drop out of high school: A longitudinal study. The Journal of Educational Research, 104, 241–52. doi: 10.1080/00220671003728062.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freeman.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1–26. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory in cultural context. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 51(2), 269–90. doi: 10.1111/1464-0597.00092.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. & Schunk, D. H. (1981). Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 586–98. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.41.3.586.Google Scholar

Bong, M. (2001). Between- and within-domain relations of academic motivation among middle and high school students: Self-efficacy, task-value, and achievement goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 23–34. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.23.Google Scholar

Bong, M. (2005). Within-grade changes in Korean girls’ motivation and perceptions of the learning environment across domains and achievement levels. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 656–72. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.97.4.656.Google Scholar

Bong, M., Cho, C., Ahn, H. S., & Kim, H. J. (2012). Comparison of self-beliefs for predicting student motivation and achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 105, 336–52. doi: 10.1080/00220671.2011.627401.Google Scholar

Bong, M. & Clark, R. E. (1999). Comparison between self-concept and self-efficacy in academic motivation research. Educational Psychologist, 34, 139–54. doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep3403_1.Google Scholar

Bong, M., Lee, S. K., & Woo, Y.-K. (2015). The role of interest and self-efficacy in pursuing mathematics and science. In Renninger, K. A., Nieswandt, M., & Hidi, S. (Eds.), Interest in mathematics and science learning (pp. 33–48). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.Google Scholar

Bong, M. & Skaalvik, E. M. (2003). Academic self-concept and self-efficacy: How different are they really? Educational Psychology Review, 15, 1–40. doi: 10.1023/A:1021302408382.Google Scholar

Braaksma, M. A. H., Rijlaarsdam, G., & van den Bergh, H. (2002). Observational learning and the effects of model-observer similarity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 405–15. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.94.2.405.Google Scholar

Britner, S. L. & Pajares, F. (2006). Sources of science self-efficacy beliefs of middle school students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43, 485–99. doi: 10.1002/tea.20131.Google Scholar

Butz, A. R. & Usher, E. L. (2015). Salient sources of early adolescents’ self-efficacy in two domains. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 42, 49–61. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.04.001.Google Scholar

Chen, J. A. & Usher, E. L. (2013). Profiles of the sources of science self-efficacy. Learning and Individual Differences, 24, 11–21. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2012.11.002.Google Scholar

Couzijn, M. (1999). Learning to write by observation of writing and reading processes: Effects on learning and transfer. Learning and Instruction, 9, 109–42. doi: 10.1016/S0959-4752(98)00040-1.Google Scholar

Eccles, J. S. & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 109–32. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153.Google Scholar

Elliot, A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist, 34, 169–89. doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep3403_3.Google Scholar

Elliot, A. J. & Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 218–32. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.218.Google Scholar

Groenendijk, T., Janssen, T., Rijlaarsdam, G., & van den Bergh, H. (2011). The effect of observational learning on students’ performance, processes, and motivation in two creative domains. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 1–26. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8279.2011.02052.x.Google Scholar

Hackett, G. (1995). Self-efficacy in career choice and development. In Bandura, A. (Ed.), Self-efficacy in changing societies (pp. 232–58). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Hampton, N. Z. (1998). Sources of academic self-efficacy scale: An assessment tool for rehabilitation counselors. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 41, 260–77.Google Scholar

Honicke, T. & Broadbent, J. (2016). The influence of academic self-efficacy on academic performance: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 17, 63–84. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002.Google Scholar

Joët, G., Usher, E. L., & Bressoux, P. (2011). Sources of self-efficacy: An investigation of elementary school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103, 649–63. doi: 10.1037/a0024048.Google Scholar

Klassen, R. M. (2004a). A cross-cultural investigation of the efficacy beliefs of South Asian immigrant and Anglo Canadian nonimmigrant early adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 731–42. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.96.4.731.Google Scholar

Klassen, R. M. (2004b). Optimism and realism: A review of self-efficacy from a cross-cultural perspective. International Journal of Psychology, 39, 205–30. doi: 10.1080/0020759 0344000330.Google Scholar

Lee, J., Bong, M., & Kim, S. (2014). Interaction between task values and self-efficacy on maladaptive achievement strategy use. Educational Psychology, 34, 538–60. doi: 10.1080/01443410.2014.895296.Google Scholar

Lee, J., Lee, M., & Bong, M. (2013). High value with low perceived competence as an amplifier of self-worth threat. In McInerney, D., Marsh, H., Craven, R., & Guay, F. (Eds.), Theory driving research: New wave perspectives on self-processes and human development (pp. 205–31). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.Google Scholar

Lee, W., Lee, M. J., & Bong, M. (2014). Testing interest and self-efficacy as predictors of academic self-regulation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 39, 86–99. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.02.002.Google Scholar

Lent, R. W., Lopez, F. G., & Bieschke, K. J. (1991). Mathematics self-efficacy: Sources and relation to science-based career choice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 424–30. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.38.4.424.Google Scholar

Lopez, F. G. & Lent, R. W. (1992). Sources of mathematics self-efficacy in high school students. Career Development Quarterly, 41, 3–12. doi: 10.1002/j.2161-0045.1992.tb00350.x.Google Scholar

Matsui, T., Matsui, K., & Ohnishi, R. (1990). Mechanisms underlying math self-efficacy learning of college students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 37, 225–38. doi: 10.1016/0001-8791(90)90042-Z.Google Scholar

Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1, 30–8. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.38.1.30.Google Scholar

Niemivirta, M. & Tapola, A. (2007). Self-efficacy, interest, and task performance: Within-task changes, mutual relationships, and predictive effects. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 21(3), 241–50. doi: 10.1024/1010-0652.21.3.241.Google Scholar

Noh, A., Song, J., Hwang, A., & Bong, M. (2011). Longitudinal investigation on causal predominance between self-efficacy and achievement goal. Korean Journal of Educational Methodology Studies, 23(1), 213–33.Google Scholar

Oettingen, G. (1995). Cross-cultural perspectives on self-efficacy. In Bandura, A. (Ed.), Self-efficacy in changing societies (pp. 149–76). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66, 543–78. doi: 10.3102/00346543066004543.Google Scholar

Pajares, F. (1997). Current directions in self-efficacy research. In Maehr, M. & Pintrich, P. R. (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement (Vol. 10, pp. 1–49). Greenwich, CT: JAI.Google Scholar

Pajares, F. (2003). Self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, and achievement in writing: A review of the literature. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 19, 139–58. doi: 10.1080/10573 560308222.Google Scholar

Pajares, F. (2007). Culturalizing educational psychology. In Salili, F. & Hoosain, R. (Eds.), Culture, motivation, and learning: A multicultural perspective (pp. 19–42). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.Google Scholar

Pajares, F., Britner, S. L., & Valiante, G. (2000). Relation between achievement goals and self-beliefs of middle school students in writing and science. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 406–22. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1027.Google Scholar

Pajares, F. & Miller, M. D. (1994). Role of self-efficacy and self-concept beliefs in mathematical problem solving: A path analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 193–203. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.86.2.193.Google Scholar

Pajares, F. & Schunk, D. H. (2001). Self-beliefs and school success: Self-efficacy, self-concept, and school achievement. In Riding, R. & Ryner, S. (Eds.), Perception (pp. 239–66). London: Ablex Publishing.Google Scholar

Phan, H. P. (2012). Relations between informational sources, self-efficacy and academic achievement: A developmental approach. Educational Psychology, 32, 81–105. doi: 10.1080/01443410.2011.625612.Google Scholar

Pintrich, P. R. & De Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 33–40. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.82.1.33.Google Scholar

Rottinghaus, P. J., Larson, L. M., & Borgen, F. H. (2003). The relation of self-efficacy and interests: A meta-analysis of 60 samples. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 62, 221–36. doi: 10.1016/S0001-8791(02)00039-8.Google Scholar

Schunk, D. H. (1987). Peer models and children's behavior change. Review of Educational Research, 57, 149–74. doi: 10.3102/00346543057002149.Google Scholar

Schunk, D. H. (1991). Self-efficacy and academic motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26, 207–31. doi: 10.1080/00461520.1991.9653133.Google Scholar

Schunk, D. H. (1995). Self-efficacy and education and instruction. In Maddux, J. E. (Ed.), Self-efficacy, adaptation, and adjustment: Theory, research, and application (pp. 281–303). New York, NY: Plenum.Google Scholar

Schunk, D. H. (2003). Self-efficacy for reading and writing: Influence of modeling, goal setting, and self-evaluation. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 19, 159–72. doi: 10.1080/ 10573560308219.Google Scholar

Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.Google Scholar

Schunk, D. H. & Hanson, A. R. (1985). Peer models: Influence on children's self-efficacy and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 313–22. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.77.3.313.Google Scholar

Schunk, D. H. & Hanson, A. R. (1989). Influence of peer-model attributes on children's beliefs and learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 431–4. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.81.3.431.Google Scholar

Schunk, D. H., Hanson, A. R., & Cox, P. D. (1987). Peer-model attributes and children's achievement behaviors. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 54–61. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.79.1.54.Google Scholar

Schunk, D. H. & Meece, J. L. (2006). Self-efficacy development in adolescence. In Pajares, F. & Urdan, T. (Eds.), Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents (pp. 71–96). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.Google Scholar

Schunk, D. H. & Miller, S. D. (2002). Self-efficacy and adolescents’ motivation. In Pajares, F. & Urdan, T. (Eds.), Academic motivation of adolescents (pp. 29–52). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.Google Scholar

Schunk, D. H. & Pajares, F. (2002). The development of academic self-efficacy. In Wigfield, A. & Eccles, J. (Eds.), Development of achievement motivation (pp. 15–31). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Stigler, J. W., Smith, S., & Mao, L.-W. (1985). The self-perception of competence by Chinese children. Child Development, 56, 1259–70. doi: 10.2307/1130241.Google Scholar

Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk-Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68, 202–48. doi: 10.3102/00346543068002202.Google Scholar

Usher, E. L. (2009). Sources of middle school students’ self-efficacy in mathematics: A qualitative investigation. American Educational Research Journal, 46, 275–314. doi: 10.3102/0002831208324517.Google Scholar

Usher, E. L. & Pajares, F. (2006). Sources of academic and self-regulatory efficacy beliefs of entering middle school students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 31, 125–41. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.03.002.Google Scholar

Usher, E. L. & Pajares, F. (2008). Sources of self-efficacy in school: Critical review of the literature and future directions. Review of Educational Research, 78, 751–96. doi: 10.3102/0034654308321456.Google Scholar

Usher, E. L. & Pajares, F. (2009). Sources of self-efficacy in mathematics: A validation study. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34, 89–101. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.09.002.Google Scholar

Wigfield, A. & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 68–81. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1015.Google Scholar

Wigfield, A. & Wagner, A. L. (2005). Competence, motivation, and identity development during adolescence. In Elliot, A. J. & Dweck, C. S. (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 222–39). New York, NY: Guilford.Google Scholar

Wolters, C. A., Yu, S. L., & Pintrich, P. R. (1996). The relation between goal orientation and students’ motivational beliefs and self-regulated learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 8, 211–38. doi: 10.1016/S1041-6080(96)90015-1.Google Scholar

Zeldin, A. L. & Pajares, F. (2000). Against the odds: Self-efficacy beliefs of women in mathematical, scientific, and technological careers. American Educational Research Journal, 37, 215–46. doi: 10.3102/00028312037001215.Google Scholar

Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 82–91. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1016.Google Scholar

Zimmerman, B. J., Bandura, A., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Self-motivation for academic attainment: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29, 663–76. doi: 10.3102/00028312029003663.Google Scholar

Zimmerman, B. J. & Cleary, T. J. (2006). Adolescents’ development of personal agency: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and self-regulatory skill. In Pajares, F. & Urdan, T. (Eds.), Adolescence and education: Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents (pp. 45–69). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.Google Scholar

Zimmerman, B. J. & Kitsantas, A. (1997). Developmental phases in self-regulation: Shifting from process goals to outcome goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 29–36. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.89.1.29.Google Scholar

Zimmerman, B. J. & Kitsantas, A. (2002). Acquiring writing revision and self-regulatory skill through observation and emulation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 660–8. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.94.4.660.Google Scholar

Zimmerman, B. J. & Martinez-Pons, M. (1990). Student differences in self-regulated learning: Relating grade, sex, and giftedness to self-efficacy and strategy use. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 51–9. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.82.1.51.Google Scholar

References

Allen, J. M., Muragishi, G. A., Smith, J. L., Thoman, D. B., & Brown, E. R. (2015). To grab and to hold: Cultivating communal goals to overcome cultural and structural barriers in first-generation college students’ science interest. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 1(4), 331–41. doi: 10.1037/tps0000046.Google Scholar

Atkinson, J. W. (1964). An introduction to motivation. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.Google Scholar

Azevedo, R., Moos, D., Greene, J., Winters, F., & Cromley, J. (2008). Why is externally facilitated regulated learning more effective than self-regulated learning with hypermedia? Educational Technology Research and Development, 56(1), 45–72.Google Scholar

Berlyne, D. E. (1966). Curiosity and exploration. Science, 153(3731), 25–33. doi: 10.1126/science.153.3731.25.Google Scholar

Bianco, A. T., Higgins, E. T., & Klem, A. (2003). How “fun/importance” fit affects performance: Relating implicit theories to instruction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1091–103.Google Scholar

Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Development, 78(1), 246–63. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00995.x.Google Scholar

Brown, E. R., Smith, J. L., Thoman, D. B., Allen, J. M., & Muragishi, G. (2015). From bench to bedside: A communal utility value intervention to enhance students’ biomedical science motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(4), 1116–35. doi: 10.1037/edu0000033.Google Scholar

Butner, J. E., Gagnon, K. T., Geuss, M. N., Lessard, D. A., & Story, T. N. (2015). Utilizing topology to generate and test theories of change. Psychological Methods, 20(1), 1–25. doi: 10.1037/a0037802.Google Scholar

Cech, E. A., Metz, A., Smith, J. L., & deVries, K. (2017). Epistemological dominance and social inequality: Experiences of Native American science, engineering, and health students. Science, Technology & Human Values, 42(5), 3157–62. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1014871108.Google Scholar

Ceci, S. J. & Williams, W. M. (2011). Understanding current causes of women's underrepresentation in science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(8), 3157–62. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1014871108.Google Scholar

Cerasoli, C. P., Nicklin, J. M., & Ford, M. T. (2014). Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives jointly predict performance: A 40-year meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 980–1008. doi: 10.1037/a0035661.Google Scholar

de Barba, P. G., Kennedy, G. E., & Ainley, M. D. (2016). The role of students' motivation and participation in predicting performance in a MOOC. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 32(3), 218–31. doi: 10.1111/jcal.12130.Google Scholar

Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–68.Google Scholar

Diekman, A. B., Brown, E. R., Johnston, A. M., & Clark, E. K. (2010). Seeking congruity between goals and roles: A new look at why women opt out of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics careers. Psychological Science, 21(8), 1051–7. doi: 10.1177/0956797610377342.Google Scholar

Durik, A. M. & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2007). Different strokes for different folks: How individual interest moderates the effects of situational factors on task interest. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(3), 597–610. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.597.Google Scholar

Dweck, C. S., Chiu, C., & Hong, Y. (1995). Implicit theories and their role in judgements and reactions: A world from two perspectives. Psychological Inquiry, 6, 267–85.Google Scholar

Eccles, J., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In Spence, J. T. (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives: Psychological and sociological approaches (pp. 75–146). San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman.Google Scholar

Eccles, J. S. & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 109–32.Google Scholar

Else-Quest, N. M. & Hyde, J. S. (2016). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research II: Methods and techniques. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 319–36. doi: 10.1177/0361684316647953.Google Scholar

Garner, R., Gillingham, M. G., & White, C. S. (1989). Effects of “seductive details” on macroprocessing and microprocessing in adults and children. Cognition and Instruction, 6(1), 41–57. doi: 10.1207/s1532690xci0601_2.Google Scholar

Geerling, D. M. (2017). Dynamical systems analysis of gender-related interest development in online coursework. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT.Google Scholar

Harackiewicz, J. M., Canning, E. A., Tibbetts, Y., Priniski, S. J., & Hyde, J. S. (2016a). Closing achievement gaps with a utility-value intervention: Disentangling race and social class. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(5), 745–65. doi: 10.1037/pspp0000075.Google Scholar

Harackiewicz, J. M. & Elliot, A. J. (1993). Achievement goals and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(5), 904–15. doi: 10.1037/ 0022-3514.65.5.904.Google Scholar

Harackiewicz, J. M. & Manderlink, G. (1984). A process analysis of the effects of performance-contingent rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20(6), 531–51. doi: 10.1016/0022-1031 (84)90042-8.Google Scholar

Harackiewicz, J. M. & Sansone, C. (1991). Goals and intrinsic motivation: You can get there from here. Advances in Motivation and Achievement, 7, 21–49.Google Scholar

Harackiewicz, J. M., Smith, J. L., & Priniski, S. J. (2016b). Interest matters: The importance of promoting interest in education. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(2), 220–7. doi: 10.1177/2372732216655542.Google Scholar

Hidi, S. (2016). Revisiting the role of rewards in motivation and learning: Implications of neuroscientific research. Educational Psychology Review, 28, 61–93. doi: 10.1007/s10648-015-9307-5.Google Scholar

Hidi, S. & Harackiewicz, J. (2000). Motivating the academically unmotivated: A critical issue for the 21st century. Review of Educational Research, 70, 151–79.Google Scholar

Hidi, S. & Renninger, K. A. (2006). The four-phase model of interest development. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 111–27. doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep4102_4.Google Scholar

Hulleman, C. S. & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–12. doi: 10.1126/science.1177067.Google Scholar

Isaac, J. D., Sansone, C., & Smith, J. L. (1999). Other people as a source of interest in an activity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(3), 239–65. doi: 10.1006/jesp.1999.1385.Google Scholar

Jackson, M. C., Galvez, G., Landa, I., Buonora, P., & Thoman, D. B. (2016). Science that matters: the importance of a cultural connection in underrepresented students’ science pursuit. CBE-Life Sciences Education, 15(3), 1–12. doi: 10.1187/cbe.16-01-0067.Google Scholar

Knogler, M., Harackiewicz, J. M., Gegenfurtner, A., & Lewalter, D. (2015). How situational is situational interest? Investigating the longitudinal structure of situational interest. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 43, 39–50. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.08.004.Google Scholar

Lent, R. W., Hackett, G., & Brown, S. D. (1996). A social cognitive framework for studying career choice and transition to work. Journal of Vocational Education Research, 21, 3–31.Google Scholar

Lepper, M.R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R.E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 129–37.Google Scholar

Lepper, M. R. & Henderlong, J. (2000). Turning “play” into “work” and “work” into “play”: 25 years of research on intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. In Sansone, C. & Harackiewicz, J. M. (Eds.). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance (pp. 257–307). New York, NY: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Lepper, M. R., Sagotsky, G., Dafoe, J. L., & Greene, D. (1982). Consequences of superfluous social constraints: Effects on young children's social inferences and subsequent intrinsic interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(1), 51–65. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.51.Google Scholar

Master, A., Cheryan, S., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2016). Computing whether she belongs: Stereotypes undermine girls’ interest and sense of belonging in computer science. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(3), 424–37. doi: 10.1037/edu0000061.Google Scholar

Mayer, R. E. (2008). Applying the science of learning: Evidence-based principles for the design of multimedia instruction. American Psychologist, 63(8), 760–9. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.63.8.760.Google Scholar

Miele, D. B. & Scholer, A. A. (2016). Self-regulation of motivation. In Wentzel, K. R. & Miele, D. B. (Eds.). Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 363–384). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar

Morf, C. C., Weir, C., & Davidov, M. (2000). Narcissism and intrinsic motivation: The role of goal congruence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36(4), 424–38. doi: 10.1006/jesp.1999.1421.Google Scholar

Morgan, C., Isaac, J. D., & Sansone, C. (2001). The role of interest in understanding the career choices of female and male college students. Sex Roles, 44(5–6), 295–320. doi: 10.1023/A:1010929600004.Google Scholar

Nye, C. D., Su, R., Rounds, J., & Drasgow, F. (2012). Vocational interests and performance: A quantitative summary of over 60 years of research. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(4), 384–403. doi: 10.1177/1745691612449021.Google Scholar

Panksepp, J., 1998. Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Panksepp, J. & Moskal, J. (2008). Dopamine and seeking: Subcortical “reward” systems and appetitive urges. In Elliot, A. J. (Ed.), Handbook of Approach and Avoidance Motivation (pp. 67–87). New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar

Plass, J. L., O'Keefe, P. A., Homer, B. D., Case, J., Hayward, E. O., Stein, M., & Perlin, K. (2013). The impact of individual, competitive, and collaborative mathematics game play on learning, performance, and motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(4), 1050–66. doi: 10.1037/a0032688.Google Scholar

Renninger, K. A. & Hidi, S. (2011). Revisiting the conceptualization, measurement, and generation of interest. Educational Psychologist, 46(3), 168–84. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2011.587723.Google Scholar

Renninger, K. A. & Hidi, S. (2016). The power of interest for motivation and learning. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar

Renninger, K. A., Nieswandt, M., & Hidi, S. (2015). Interest in K-16 mathematics and science learning. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.Google Scholar

Sansone, C., Fraughton, T., Zachary, J. L., Butner, J., & Heiner, C. (2011). Self-regulation of motivation when learning online: The importance of who, why and how. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59(2), 199–212. doi: 10.1007/s11423-011-9193-6.Google Scholar

Sansone, C. & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). “I don't feel like it”: The function of interest in self-regulation. In Martin & A. Tesser, L. M. (Eds.) Striving and feeling: Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation (pp. 203–28). New Jersey, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar

Sansone, C. & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance. New York, NY: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Sansone, C. & Morgan, C. (1992). Intrinsic motivation and education: Competence in context. Motivation and Emotion, 16, 249–70.Google Scholar

Sansone, C., Sachau, D. A., & Weir, C. (1989). Effects of instruction on intrinsic interest: The importance of context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(5), 819–29. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.57.5.819.Google Scholar

Sansone, C. & Smith, J. L. (2000). Interest and self-regulation: The relation between having to and wanting to. In Sansone, C. & Harackiewicz, J. M. (Eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance (pp. 341–72). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Sansone, C., Smith, J. L., Thoman, D. B., & MacNamara, A. (2012). Regulating interest when learning online: Potential motivation and performance trade-offs. The Internet and Higher Education, 15(3), 141–9. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.10.004.Google Scholar

Sansone, C. & Thoman, D. B. (2005). Interest as the missing motivator in self-regulation. European Psychologist, 10(3), 175–86. doi: 10.1027/1016-9040.10.3.175.Google Scholar

Sansone, C. & Thoman, D. B. (2006). Maintaining activity engagement: Individual differences in the process of self-regulating motivation. Journal of Personality, 74, 1697–720.Google Scholar

Sansone, C., Thoman, D. B., & Smith, J. L. (2010). Interest and self-regulation: Understanding individual variability in choices, efforts and persistence over time. In Hoyle, R. (Ed.) Handbook of personality and self-regulation (pp. 191–217). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar

Sansone, C., Weir, C., Harpster, L., & Morgan, C. (1992). Once a boring task always a boring task? Interest as a self-regulatory mechanism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(3), 379–90. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.63.3.379.Google Scholar

Sansone, C., Wiebe, D. J., & Morgan, C. (1999). Self-regulating interest: The moderating role of hardiness and conscientiousness. Journal of Personality, 67(4), 701–33. doi: 10.1111/1467-6494.00070.Google Scholar

Shechter, O. G., Durik, A. M., Miyamoto, Y., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2011). The role of utility value in achievement behavior: The importance of culture. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(3), 303–17. doi: 10.1177/0146167210396380.Google Scholar

Smith, J. L., Brown, E. R., Thoman, D. B., & Deemer, E. D. (2015). Losing its expected communal value: How stereotype threat undermines women's identity as research scientists. Social Psychology of Education, 18(3), 443–66. doi: 10.1007/s11218-015-9296-8.Google Scholar

Smith, J. L., Deemer, E. D., Thoman, D. B., & Zazworsky, L. (2014). Motivation under the microscope: Understanding undergraduate science students’ multiple motivations for research. Motivation and Emotion, 38(4), 496–512. doi: 10.1007/s11031-013-9388-8.Google Scholar

Smith, J. L., Morgan, C. L., & White, P. H. (2005). Investigating a measure of computer technology domain identification: A tool for understanding gender differences and stereotypes. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 65(2), 336–55. doi: 10.1177/0013164404272486.Google Scholar

Smith, J. L. & Ruiz, J. M. (2007). Interpersonal orientation in context: Correlates and effects of interpersonal complementarity on subjective and cardiovascular experiences. Journal of Personality, 75(4), 679–708. doi: 10.1111/ j.1467-6494.2007.00453.x.Google Scholar

Smith, J. L., Sansone, C., & White, P. H. (2007). The stereotyped task engagement process: The role of interest and achievement motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1), 99–114. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.99.Google Scholar

Smith, J. L., Wagaman, J., & Handley, I. M. (2009). Keeping it dull or making it fun: Task variation as a function of promotion versus prevention focus. Motivation and Emotion, 33(2), 150–60. doi: 10.1007/s11031-008-9118-9.Google Scholar

Tauer, J. M. & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2004). The effects of cooperation and competition on intrinsic motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(6), 849–61. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.86.6.849.Google Scholar

Thoman, D. B., Arizaga, J. A., Smith, J. L., Story, T. S., & Soncuya, G. A., (2014). The grass is greener in non-STEM: Examining the role of competing belonging in undergraduate women's vulnerability to being pulled away from science. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38, 246–58. doi: 10.1177/0361684313499899.Google Scholar

Thoman, D. B., Brown, E. R., Mason, A. Z., Harmsen, A. G., & Smith, J. L. (2015). The role of altruistic values in motivating underrepresented minority students for biomedicine. BioScience, 65, 183–8. doi: 10.1093/biosci/biu199.Google Scholar

Thoman, D. B., Sansone, C., Robinson, J., & Helm, J. (2018). Implicit theories of interest regulation. Manuscript under review.Google Scholar

Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., Brown, E. R., Chase, J. P., & Lee, J. K. (2013). Beyond performance: The motivational experience model of stereotype threat. Educational Psychology Review, 25, 211–43. doi: 10.1007/s10648-013-9219-1.Google Scholar

Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., & Silvia, P. J. (2011). The resource replenishment function of interest. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 592–9. doi: 10.1177/1948550611402521.Google Scholar

Turner, S. A. Jr. & Silvia, P. J. (2006). Must interesting things be pleasant? A test of competing appraisal structures. Emotion, 6, 670–4.Google Scholar

Vallerand, R. J., Blanchard, C., Mageau, G. A., Koestner, R., Ratelle, C., Léonard, M., & Marsolais, J. (2003). Les passions de l’âme: On obsessive and harmonious passion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(4), 756–67. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.756.Google Scholar

Wolters, C. A. (1998). Self-regulated learning and college students’ regulation of motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 224.Google Scholar

Woodcock, A., Graziano, W. G., Branch, S. E., Habashi, M. M., Ngambeki, I., & Evangelou, D. (2012). Person and thing orientations: Psychological correlates and predictive utility. Social Psychological and Personality Sciences. 4, 116.Google Scholar

References

Akiva, T. & Horner, C. G. (2016). Adolescent motivation to attend youth programs: A mixed-methods investigation. Applied Developmental Science, 20(4), 278–93. doi: 10.1080/10888691.2015.1127162.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (1991a). Anticipatory and self-reactive mechanisms. In Dienstbier, R. A. (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Perspectives on Motivation (Vol. 38). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (1991b). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 248–87. doi: 10.1016/0749-5978(91)90022-L.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (2006). Toward a psychology of human agency. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1(2), 164–80. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00011.x.Google Scholar

Barron, B., Schwartz, D., Vye, N., Moore, A., Petrosino, A., Zech, L., & Brandsford, J. (1998). Doing with understanding: Lessons from research on problem and project-based learning. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 7(3), 271–311. doi: 10.1207/s15327809jls0703&4_2.Google Scholar

Baumeister, R. F. & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497.Google Scholar

Bevan, B. & Michalchik, V. (2013). Where it gets interesting: Competing models of STEM learning after school. Afterschool Matters, 17, 1–8.Google Scholar

Blumenfeld, P. C., Soloway, E., Marx, R. W., Krajcik, J. S., Guzdial, M., & Palincsar, A., (1991). Motivating project-based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist, 26(3–4), 369–98. doi: 10.1080/00461520.1991.9653139.Google Scholar

Blyth, D., Olson, B., & Walker, K. (2015). Ways of being: A model for social & emotional learning. University of Minnesota Extension: Youth Development Issue Brief. Retrieved from www.ostrc.org/newsletter/documents/WaysofBeing_000.pdf.Google Scholar

Carver, C. S. & Scheier, M. F. (2007). Feedback processes in the simultaneous regulation of action and affect. In Shah, J. Y. & Gardner, W. L. (Eds.), Handbook of motivation science (1st ed., pp. 308–24). New York, NY: Guilford.Google Scholar

Catalano, R. F., Toumbourou, J. W., & Hawkins, J. D. (2014). Positive youth development in the United States: History, efficacy, and links to moral and character education. In Nucci, L., Narvaez, D., & Krettenauer, T. (Eds.), Handbook of moral and character education (2nd ed., pp. 423–40). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar

Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Cohen, G. L. & Steele, C. M. (2002). A barrier of mistrust: How negative stereotypes affect cross-race mentoring. In Aronson, J. (Ed.), Improving academic achievement (pp. 303–27). New York, NY: Emerald. doi: 10.1016/B978-012064455-1/50018-X.Google Scholar

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: Harper Perennial.Google Scholar

Csikszentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K., & Whalen, S. (1993). Talented teenagers: A longitudinal study of their development. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Damon, W. (2008). The path to purpose: Helping our children find their calling in life. New York, NY: Free Press.Google Scholar

Dawes, N. P. & Larson, R. W. (2011). How youth get engaged: Grounded-theory research on motivational development in organized youth programs. Developmental Psychology, 47(1), 259–69. doi: 10.1037/a0020729.Google Scholar

Deutsch, N. L. & Jones, J. N. (2008). “Show me an ounce of respect”: Respect and authority in adult-youth relationships in after-school programs. Journal of Adolescent Research, 23(6), 667–88. doi: 10.1177/0743558408322250.Google Scholar

Diaz, L., Larson, R. W., Armstrong, J., & Perry, S. C. (2015). A case study of youth learning to lead: The power of iterative cycles of situated learning. Paper presented at Annual Meetings of AERA, Chicago.Google Scholar

Donovan, M. S. (2013). Generating improvement through research and development in education systems. Science, 340(6130), 317–19. doi: 10.1126/science.1236180.Google Scholar

Duckworth, A. (2016). Grit: The power of passion and perseverance. New York, NY: Scribner.Google Scholar

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Studying gender and ethnic differences in participation in math, physical science, and information technology. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2005(110), 7–14. doi: 10.1002/cd.146.Google Scholar

Eccles, J. S. & Roeser, R. W. (2009). Schools, academic motivation, and stage-environment fit. In Lerner, R. M. & Steinberg, L. (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 404–34). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. doi: 10.1002/9780470479193.adlpsy001013.Google Scholar

Fisher, L. J. (2013). Motivational spiral models (MSM): Common and distinct motivations in context. SpringerPlus, 2(1), 565. doi: 10.1186/2193-1801-2-565.Google Scholar

Griffith, A. N. & Larson, R. W. (2016). Why trust matters: How confidence in leaders transforms what adolescents gain from youth programs. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26(4), 790–804. doi: 10.1111/jora.12230.Google Scholar

Griffith, A. N., Larson, R. W., & Johnson, H. E. (2017). How trust grows: Teenagers’ accounts of forming trust in youth program staff. Qualitative Psychology. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/qup0000090.Google Scholar

Halpern, R. (2009). The means to grow up: Reinventing apprenticeship as a developmental support in adolescence. New York, NY: Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9780203885970.Google Scholar

Hardy, J. (2006). Speaking clearly: A critical review of the self-talk literature. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7(1), 81–97. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.04.002.Google Scholar

Heath, S. B. (1999). Dimensions of language development: Lessons from older children. In Masten, A. S. (Ed.), Cultural processes in child development: The Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology (Vol. 29, pp. 59–75). Mahwah, NY: Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Johnson, E. L., Munro, S. E., & Bunge, S. A. (2014). Development of neural networks supporting goal-directed behavior. In Zelazo, P. D. & Sera, M. D. (Eds.), Developing cognitive control processes: Mechanisms, implications, and interventions: Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology (Vol. 37, pp. 21–54). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. doi: 10.1002/9781118732373.Google Scholar

Kaplan, A., Katz, I., & Flum, H. (2012). Motivation theory in educational practice: Knowledge claims, challenges, and future directions. In Harris, K. R., Graham, S., & Urdan, T. (Eds.), APA educational psychology handbook (pp. 165–94). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar

Kaplan, A. & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141–84. doi: 10.1007/s10648-006-9012-5.Google Scholar

Kirshner, B., Pozzoboni, K., & Jones, H. (2011). Learning how to manage bias: A case study of youth participatory action research. Applied Developmental Science, 15(3), 140–55. doi: 10.1080/10888691.2011.587720.Google Scholar

Larson, R. W. (2000). Toward a psychology of positive youth development. American Psychologist, 55(1), 170–83. doi: 10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.170.Google Scholar

Larson, R. W. (2011). Positive development in a disorderly world. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(2), 317–34. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00707.x.Google Scholar

Larson, R. W. & Angus, R. M. (2011). Adolescents’ development of skills for agency in youth programs: Learning to think strategically. Child Development, 82(1), 277–94. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01555.x.Google Scholar

Larson, R. W. & Brown, J. R. (2007). Emotional development in adolescence: What can be learned from a high school theater program? Child Development, 78(4), 1083–99. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01054.x.Google Scholar

Larson, R. W. & Dawes, N. P. (2015). How to cultivate adolescents’ motivation: Effective strategies employed by the professional staff of American youth programs. In Joseph, S. (Ed.), Positive psychology in practice (pp. 313–26). New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar

Larson, R., Raffaelli, M., Guzman, S., Salusky, I., Orson, C., & Kenzer, A., (in press). The important (but neglected) developmental value of roles: Findings from youth programs. Developmental Psychology.Google Scholar

Larson, R. W. & Hansen, D. (2005). The development of strategic thinking: Learning to impact human systems in a youth activism program. Human Development, 48, 327–49. doi: 10.1159/000088251.Google Scholar

Larson, R. W., Izenstark, D., Rodriguez, G., & Perry, S. C. (2016). The art of restraint: How experienced program leaders use their authority to support youth agency. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26(4), 845–63. doi: 10.1111/jora.12234.Google Scholar

Larson, R. W., Jensen, L., Kang, H., Griffith, A. N., & Rompala, V. (2012). Peer groups as a crucible of positive value development in a global world. In Trommsdorff, G. & Chen, X. (Eds.), Values, religion, and culture in adolescent development (pp. 164–87). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Larson, R. W. & Richards, M. H. (1991). Boredom in the middle school years: Blaming schools versus blaming students. American Journal of Education, 99(4), 418–43. doi: 10.1086/443992.Google Scholar

Larson, R. W. & Rusk, N. (2011). Intrinsic motivation and positive development. In Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., & Benson, J. B. (Eds.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 41, pp. 89–130). Oxford: Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-386492-5.00005-1.Google Scholar

Larson, R. W. & Walker, K. C. (2006). Learning about the “real world” in an urban arts youth program. Journal of Adolescent Research, 21(3), 244–68. doi: 10.1177/0743558405285824.Google Scholar

Masten, A. S. (2013). Risk and resilience in development. In Zelazo, P. D. (Ed.), Oxford handbook of developmental psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 579–607). New York, NY: Oxford Press. doi: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199958474.013.0023.Google Scholar

McLaughlin, M. W., Irby, M. A., & Langman, J. (1994). Urban sanctuaries: Neighborhood organizations in the lives and futures of inner-city youth. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar

Nurmi, J. E. (2004). Socialization and self-development: Channeling, selection, adjustment, and reflection. In Lerner, R. M. & Steinberg, L. (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (2nd ed., pp. 85–124). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. doi: 10.1002/9780471726746.ch4.Google Scholar

Orson, C. (2018). Reframing: How staff help youth overcome episodes of anxiety in youth programs. Masters Thesis. Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois.Google Scholar

Pekrun, R., Frenzel, A. C., Goetz, T., & Perry, R. P. (2007). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: An integrative approach to emotions in education. In Schutz, P. A. & Pekrun, R. (Eds.), Emotion in education (pp. 13–36). Amsterdam: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Priest, S. & Gass, M. A. (2005). Effective leadership in adventure programming (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.Google Scholar

Renninger, K. A. & Hidi, S. E. (2016). The power of interest for motivation and engagement. New York, NY: Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9781315771045.Google Scholar

Rickman, A. N. (2009). A challenge to the notion of youth passivity: Adolescents’ development of career direction through youth programs. Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois.Google Scholar

Roth, J. L. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2003a). What exactly is a youth development program? Answers from research and practice. Applied Developmental Science, 7(2), 94–111. doi: 10.1207/S1532480XADS0702.Google Scholar

Roth, J. L. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2003b). Youth development programs and healthy development: A review and next steps. In Romer, D. (Ed.), Reducing adolescent risk: Toward an integrated approach (pp. 355–65). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Rusk, N., Larson, R. W., Raffaelli, M., Walker, K., Washington, L., Gutierrez, V., ... Cole Perry, S. (2013). Positive youth development in organized programs: How teens learn to manage emotions. In Proctor, C. & Linley, P. A. (Eds.), Research, applications, and interventions for children and adolescents: A positive psychology perspective (pp. 247–61). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-6398-2_15.Google Scholar

Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68.Google Scholar

Salusky, I., Larson, R. W., Griffith, A. N., Wu, J., Raffaelli, M., Sugimura, N., & Guzman, M. (2014). How adolescents develop responsibility: What can be learned from youth programs. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 24(3), 417–30. doi: 10.1111/jora.12118.Google Scholar

Shweder, R. A., Goodnow, J. J., Hatano, G., LeVine, R. A., Markus, H. R., & Miller, P. J. (2006). The cultural psychology of development: One mind, many mentalities. In Damon, W. & Lerner, R. (Gen. Eds.) & Lerner, R. (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., pp. 716–792). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. doi: 10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0113.Google Scholar

Smith, C., McGovern, G., Larson, R. W., Hillaker, B., & Peck, S. C. (2016a). Preparing youth to thrive: Promising practices for social and emotional learning. Washington, DC: David P. Weikart Center for Youth Program Quality at the Forum for Youth Investment. Retrieved from http://selpractices.org.Google Scholar

Smith, C., McGovern, G., Peck, S. C., Larson, R. W., & Roy, L. (2016b). Preparing youth to thrive: Methodology and findings from the Social and Emotional Learning Challenge. Washington, DC: David P. Weikart Center for Youth Program Quality at the Forum for Youth Investment. Retrieved from http://selpractices.org.Google Scholar

Steinberg, L. (2014). Age of opportunity: Lessons from the new science of adolescence. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.Google Scholar

Strauss, A. L. & Corbin, J. (2008). Basics of qualitative research. (3rd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Vandell, D. L., Larson, R. W., Mahoney, J. L., & Watts, T. W. (2015). Children's organized activities. In Bornstein, M. H., Leventhal, T., & Lerner, R. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science (pp. 1–40). New York, NY: Wiley. doi: 10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy408.Google Scholar

Vandell, D. L., Reisner, E. R., Pierce, K. M., Brown, B. B., Lee, D., Bolt, D., & Pechman, E. M., (2006). The study of promising after-school programs: Examination of longer term outcomes after two years of program experiences. Retrieved from http://gseweb.oit.uci.edu/childcare/pdf/afterschool/PP Examination in Year 3.pdf.Google Scholar

Walker, J., Marczak, M., Blyth, D., & Borden, L. (2005). Designing youth development programs: Toward a theory of developmental intentionality. In Mahoney, J. L., Larson, R. W., & Eccles, J. S. (Eds.), Organized activities as contexts of development: Extracurricular activities, after-school and community programs (pp. 399–418). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Wood, D., Larson, R. W., & Brown, J. R. (2009). How adolescents come to see themselves as more responsible through participation in youth programs. Child Development, 80(1), 295–309. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01260.x.Google Scholar

Zimmerman, B. J. & Campillo, M. (2003). Motivating self-regulated problem solvers. In Davidson, J. E. & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.), The psychology of problem solving. (pp. 233–62) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Book contents

Part I - The Self and Its Impact

Summary

Access options

References

References

References

References

References

References

Save book to Kindle

Save book to Dropbox

Save book to Google Drive